Homeowners no longer think of their yards as great expanses of lawn, but as outdoor living spaces. Permanent outdoor structures can add to the beauty and function of these outdoor rooms. For example, a deck can provide additional space for entertaining or relaxing, a wall can provide privacy and texture, and a walkway or path can unify areas.

LUMBER

Wood remains the most common building material in outdoor construction, and it is usually less expensive than stone or brick. Its versatility lends itself to just about any project, from the plain and practical to the elegant and ornate. It is ideal for decks and walkways, fences and retaining walls, pergolas and screens, outdoor furniture, and of course, outbuildings. And it is beautiful, blending with most architectural styles. It looks especially attractive in settings surrounded by trees.

Wood is the most common, and arguably the most versatile, of building materials. Carefully choose lumber that is appropriate for your project.

Apply a coat of sealer-preservative or staining sealer to all sides of outdoor structures. Make sure sealer is applied to all end-grain. Even pressure-treated lumber is vulnerable to moisture and rot.

Pressure-treated lumber stamps list the type of preservative and the chemical retention level, as well as the exposure rating and the name and location of the treating company.

Cedar grade stamps list the mill number, moisture content, species, lumber grade, and membership association. Western red cedar (WRC) or incense cedar (INC) for decks should be heartwood (HEART) with a maximum moisture content of 15% (MC15).

METALS & PLASTICS

Plastic and aluminum products have become popular alternatives to traditional outdoor building materials because they are low maintenance, versatile, and easy to install. Though these materials are typically more expensive than wood and other alternatives, their durability makes them attractive options.

Metals and plastics are replacing more traditional materials, as they have minimal maintenance and allow environmentally conscientious consumers to use recycled products.

CAST BLOCKS

Manufactured stone is often designed to resemble natural stone, but it offers distinct advantages over the real thing. Greater uniformity makes installation easier, and it is often less expensive than natural alternatives.

Brick and concrete block are available in a growing variety of sizes and styles, allowing you to build distinctive outdoor structures.

NATURAL STONE

Natural stone is one of the finest building materials you can use. It offers beautiful color and texture, along with unmatched durability and elegance, making it a classic building material for landscape floors, ornamental walls, retaining walls, and walkways. Because of its beauty, it is also a choice material for decorative features, such as rock gardens, ponds, fountains, and waterfalls.

Fieldstone is stone gathered from fields, dry river beds, and hillsides. It is used in wall construction.

Flagstone is large slabs of quarried stone cut into pieces up to 3” thick. It is used in walks, steps, and patios.

A stone yard is a great place to get ideas and see the types of stone that are available. This stone yard includes a display area that identifies different types of stone and suggests ways they can be used.

CONCRETE

Poured concrete has long been a favorite for driveways, walkways, and patios because of its exceptional strength, but new tinting and surface finishing techniques give concrete a decorative look that makes it attractive for landscaping. It’s much less expensive than natural stone, and because it’s poured while in a semi-liquid state, it can be formed into curves and other shapes, such as landscape ponds or fountains. Using simple tools, you can even finish concrete to simulate brick pavers or flagstone.

Ingredients for mixing your own mortar include portland cement, sand, and water. For high temperature, add refractory mix.

Premixed concrete products contain all the components of concrete. Just add water, mix, and pour.

To mix concrete ingredients in a wheelbarrow, use a ratio of 1 part portland cement (A), 2 parts sand (B), and 3 parts coarse gravel (C).

MORTAR

Masonry mortar is a mixture of portland cement, sand, and water. Ingredients, such as lime and gypsum, are added to improve workability or control “setup” time.

Local brick and stone suppliers will often help you design your project and advise you about estimating materials, local building codes, and climate considerations.

Measure the width and length of the project in feet, then multiply the dimensions to get the square footage. Measure the thickness in feet (4” thick equals 1/3 ft.), then multiply the square footage times the thickness to get the cubic footage. For example, 1 ft. × 3 ft. × 1/3 ft. = 1 cu. ft. Twenty-seven cubic feet equals one cubic yard.

Hand tools for outdoor building should be rated for heavy-duty construction. Always purchase the highest-quality tool you can afford; there is no substitute for quality.

Power tools you may need for outdoor building projects include: (A) Reciprocating saws (corded and cordless); (B) Circular saw or trim saw; (C) Jigsaw; (D) Cordless drill/driver.

Landscaping tools for preparing sites include: power auger (A), power tamper (B), power sod cutter (C), pick (D), weed trimmer (E), come-along (F), garden rake (G).

Mason’s tools include: a darby (A) for smoothing screeded concrete; mortar hawk (B) for holding mortar; pointing trowel (C) for tuck-pointing stone mortar; wide pointing tool (D) for tuck-pointing or placing mortar on brick and block walls; jointer (E) for finishing mortar joints; brick tongs (F) for carrying multiple bricks; narrow tuck-pointer (G) for tuck-pointing or placing mortar on brick and block walls; mason’s trowel (H) for applying mortar; masonry chisels (I) for splitting brick, block, and stone; bull float (J) for floating large slabs; mason’s hammers (K) for chipping brick and stone; maul (L) for driving stakes; square-end trowel (M) for concrete finishing; side edger (N) and step edger (O) for finishing inside and outside corners of concrete; joint chisel (P) for removing dry mortar; control jointer (Q) for creating control joints; tile nippers (R) for trimming tile; sled jointer (S) for smoothing long joints; steel trowel (T) for finishing concrete; magnesium or wood float (U) for floating concrete; screed board (V) for screeding concrete.

Metal connectors commonly used include: joist hanger (A), flashing (B), angled joist hanger (C), rafter tie (D), post-beam caps (E), stair cleat (F), hurricane tie (G), post anchor with washer and pedestal (H), joist tie (I), angle bracket (J).

Common types of fasteners include: J-bolt with nut and washer (A), carriage bolts with washers and nuts (B, C), galvanized lag screws and washers (D), corrosion-resistant deck screws (E), masonry anchors (F).

Always talk with your neighbors when planning an outdoor project. Not only will this ensure that you agree upon details such as property lines, it may also enable you to combine resources or expenses.

FENCES

• Height: The maximum height of a fence may be restricted by your local building code. In some communities, backyard fences are limited to 6 ft. in height, while front yard fences are limited to 3 ft. or 4 ft.—or prohibited altogether.

Fences should be set back at least 1 ft. from the formal property lines.

DRIVEWAYS

• Width: Straight driveways should be at least 10 ft. wide; 12 ft. is better. On sharp curves, the driveway should be 14 ft. wide.

Driveways should be at least 10 ft. wide to accommodate vehicles.

SIDEWALKS & PATHS

• Size of sidewalks: Traditional concrete sidewalks should be 4 to 5 ft. wide to allow two people to comfortably pass one another, and 3 to 4” thick.

Walkways should crown in the center to provide water runoff.

STEPS

• Proportion of riser to tread depth: In general, steps should be proportioned so that the sum of the depth plus the riser, multiplied by two, is between 25 and 27”. A 15” depth and 6” rise, for example, is a comfortable step (15 + 12 = 27), as is an 18” depth and 4” rise (18 + 8 = 26).

Concrete steps should use a comfortable tread depth and riser height.

CONCRETE PATIOS

• Base: Concrete patios should have a subbase of compactable gravel at least 4” thick. Concrete slabs for patios should be at least 3” thick.

Concrete patios require reinforcement with steel mesh or rebar.

GARDEN WALLS

• Footings: Mortared brick or stone garden walls more than 4 ft. in height often require concrete footings that extend below the winter frost line. Failure to follow this regulation can result in a hefty fine or a demolition order, as well as a flimsy, dangerous wall.

Mortared garden walls need to be supported by concrete footings.

SWIMMING POOLS

• Fences: Nearly all building codes require a protective fence around swimming pools to keep young children and animals away from the water.

A pool requires a protective fence to keep neighborhood children and animals from falling in.

SHEDS

• Permits: Sheds greater than 120 sq. ft. generally require a permit, but temporary buildings generally do not. Additionally, if you live in a city or a suburban association, there may be restrictions on where and how you may build a shed. If you live in a rural community, you may not need a permit if the shed will not house humans or animals.

PORCHES

• Permits: Permits are required for any additions to a home. Have all gas or electrical elements added to the porch inspected before walls or floors are closed up and finished. In some areas, inspections may also be required for the footings, framing, and insulation.

FIRE PITS & BARBECUES

• Clearance: Requirements vary by municipality, but in general, permanent open fire or barbecue pits are not permitted less than 25 ft. from your home, garage, shed, wood pile, or wooden fences.

RETAINING WALLS

• Height: For do-it-yourself construction, retaining walls should be no more than 4 ft. high. Higher slopes should be terraced with two or more short retaining walls.

A series of short retaining walls, rather than one tall wall, is the best way to handle a slope.

PONDS

• Safety: To ensure child safety, some communities restrict landscape ponds to a depth of 12 to 18”, unless surrounded by a protective fence or covered with heavy wire mesh.

Railing balusters are required by building code to be spaced no more than 4” apart to keep small children from slipping through or being trapped between them.

DECKS

• Structural members: Determining the proper spacing and size for structural elements of a deck can be a complicated process, but if you follow these guidelines, you will satisfy code requirements in most areas:

JOIST SIZE & SPAN

Sheds larger than 100 square feet may require a permit, but temporary structures typically do not.

Measure and document the features of your yard to create a rough yard survey.

Redwoodfence photo courtesy of California Redwood Association

Board, louver, basket-weave, and panel fences are good choices for stepped fences that accommodate a change in grade. More geometric in shape, they can also be more difficult to design and build.

Inset framing makes it possible to save mature trees when building a deck. Keeping trees and other landscape features intact helps preserve the value and appearance of your property.

USE

How you plan to spend time on your patio will influence many of your design decisions, so it’s best to start the planning process by brainstorming with everyone in your household. What will be the primary uses for the space? Dining, entertaining, sunbathing, playing with the kids, enjoying the view? Once you establish the uses, see if you can accommodate all of those activities within an attractive, efficient design. For some, the solution lies simply in providing adequate space in a flexible floor plan—a quick shift in furniture, for example, can set the stage for the next activity.

SIZE & LAYOUT

The ideal size and configuration for your patio is determined by the space needed for each activity, including plenty of room for easy access and intervening traffic. With the floor space allocated, you can begin playing around with different layouts, design elements, and shapes until the form of the space complements all of its functions. All the while, keep the big picture in mind—make sure the proportions and general design of the patio complement your house and the rest of the landscape.

HOW MUCH SPACE?

Time to think again about all the uses you have planned for the patio. If you already have the patio furniture, set it up on the proposed site and experiment with different arrangements to get a sense of how much space each furniture grouping will need. If you don’t have the furniture yet, see the illustration below for suggestions on spacing. Next, decide which areas you want to be dedicated for specific activities and which can be rearranged for multiple uses. Cooking and dining areas are best as static, or anchored, stations, while an informal sunbathing spot defined by a couple of lounge chairs can easily be rearranged or moved as needed.

TAKE A STEP BACK

As your patio plans develop, try to envision the design within its context. Does the size seem appropriate for the house and lot? How do the size and layout translate to atmosphere? While it’s important to make a patio large enough for all its intended uses, there’s also a risk in making it too large. With interior rooms, some people like the grandeur and openness of a sprawling great room with a cathedral ceiling, while others find the expansive space uncomfortable for personal activities like reading or quiet conversation.

When arranging your patio, consider the placement of furniture and permanent structures as well as the space needed for primary traffic routes. These routes should have a minimum width of 22” to allow for comfortable passage throughout the patio.

ZONING LAWS, BUILDING CODES & UTILITIES

Contact local utility companies to have all utility lines marked on your property. This is necessary before digging in your yard, and it could affect your patio location. Utility companies promptly send out a representative to mark the lines.

Always check your municipality’s zoning laws when planning a new patio project.

ACCESS

Like most recreation and relaxation areas, a patio tends to be used more often if it’s easily accessible. The same is true of visual access. Full views, or even just glimpses, of the patio from several interior rooms will beckon you outdoors on nice days.

ATMOSPHERE

Perhaps the most important elements of all are the everyday factors that affect the quality of life on a patio, including sunlight, noise, privacy, and views. Does the site get enough sunlight (or too much) at the times you’re most likely to use it? Are noise levels acceptable—or will you need to put up a fence? Will you feel overly exposed and on display, or too shut in? Finally, what you see from the patio has a big impact on the atmosphere. If there are no good views available, add landscaping, plants, or decorations to create a pleasant view.

DEALING WITH DRAINAGE

It’s not unusual that a new patio creates, or is subject to, drainage problems. One common cause is a hard paved surface that sheds water instead of absorbing it and deposits it along the lower edge of the patio. There, the water collects, creating a swampy area of grass. During heavy rains, runoff water can build up enough force to wash out flower beds bordering a patio. Drainage problems can also occur when the water has no escape, a common condition with sunken or recessed patios that are surrounded by retaining walls or ascending slopes. Additionally, adding or removing soil or plants to make room for a patio can alter natural drainage patterns, potentially resulting in an unpleasant surprise with the first good rain.

A perimeter trench filled with drainage gravel and drain tile can help remove excess patio runoff that doesn’t drain well into the yard.

CLIMATE CONTROL

Careful planning can’t change the weather, but it can help you make the best of prevailing conditions. By controlling or using sunlight and shade, wind, and natural air currents, you can make your patio the most comfortable place in your outdoor landscape. Consider the following:

Remember to consider the amount of sunlight your patio will receive to make sure your planned project will meet your needs.

Shadows follow the east-west axis in the summer.

Winter shadows point to the northeast and northwest and are relatively long at midday.

Barriers help control wind patterns around your patio. Solid barriers drive wind currents upward, creating a forcible reversal in direction. Filtering barriers allow wind to pass through, reducing its force in the process.

Surface materials, barriers, and the patio’s elevation within the landscape all have an effect on the space’s temperature and comfortability.

An accurately scaled site plan puts your property into perspective and helps you think like a designer. Create a plan using your own measurements or locate the plat map or original blueprints of your property (check with the local city or county planning offices or your mortgage/title company).

Sketch your designs onto clean copies of the site plan, or use an overlay of tracing paper for each new drawing. As you refine your plans, create more detailed, smaller-scale drawings of the patio/walkway site and immediate surroundings.

SAMPLE PATIO PLAN 1

Like most lots in established urban neighborhoods, this backyard space was short on both space and privacy. But by devoting most of the area to two patios and the rest to planting beds, this design provides ample room for entertaining, outdoor dining, and even gardening.

This multifunctional design adds privacy while creating multiple spaces for entertaining.

SAMPLE PATIO PLAN 2

Sloping ground can be a challenge for patio plans, but can also be an opportunity for creating dramatic features or perspectives you can’t get with a flat surface. In this backyard site, the area near the middle of the house was relatively close to grade. Adding a few retaining walls allowed the patio to extend out to both sides. One retaining wall cuts into the slope along the south end of the site, providing space and a boundary for a paver walkway linking the patio to the front yard. This abuts a four-foot-tall masonry wall that carves a 90-degree space into the slope and provides a backdrop (and backsplash) for an L-shaped outdoor kitchen.

To make the most of a sloping yard, use retaining walls, steps, and paths to emphasize grand views and allow easy access to garden areas.

SAMPLE PATIO PLAN 3

This grand design, created for a large suburban or rural property, has a setting for every mood and occasion: the expansive brick patio provides an elegant venue for both formal and casual entertaining. Guests (and kids) will feel more than welcome to step out onto the lawn for backyard games or a stroll through the grounds.

This design provides outdoor rooms for all purposes—gathering around a fire, dining, sunbathing, relaxing in a screened-in porch, or enjoying the view from a gazebo.

SAMPLE PATIO PLAN 4

Casual and organic in feel, this plan with sandset flagstone surfaces embodies the spirit of the ranch home, in which the patio is used as an extension of the indoor spaces. Running the full length of the home, the patio is accessible from several different rooms and is likewise visible from each.

This sandset flagstone patio is accessible from multiple areas around the house, seamlessly integrating indoor and outdoor living.

SAMPLE PATIO PLAN 5

This new suburban property presented a challenge to the standard patio plan: the back of the house seemed just right for a full-sized patio, but the neighboring property was so close that the view from the patio would be dominated by the neighbor’s kitchen (and their backyard patio). The better view was from the front of the house. Therefore, this design places the main patio space around the front door, incorporating the existing entry stoop and portico. A second, smaller patio made with circular concrete pavers serves as a landing and casual sitting area just outside the patio door leading to the back yard.

If the best view of your home is in the front, consider constructing a landscaped patio around your home’s existing entryway, as shown in this design. A small patio in back is still a practical addition for greater privacy.

Set up batterboards for the layout strings so you can easily remove and replace the strings without losing the slope and layout settings. A story pole—measured against temporary cross strings—makes it easy to check the depth of each layer as you work. Remember to call utility companies to have them mark utility lines in or near the project site before excavating.

HOW TO PREPARE & EXCAVATE A BUILDING SITE

Construct the batterboards from 2 × 4 lumber and 21/2” screws: Cut the batterboard legs 24” long, and then taper the ends to a point. Cut the cross- pieces at 24”. Align and fasten the legs perpendicular to the ends of the cross- pieces. Use a nail or screw at the top center of each crosspiece.

Roughly mark the patio corners with 2 × 2 stakes. Cut the 2 × 2 ends to a taper (the greater the angle, the easier it will be to drive into the ground). Tap the tapered end into the ground with a hand maul or sledgehammer.

Drive pairs of batterboards about 2 ft. behind the stakes, holding them plumb and level. The tops of the crosspieces should be about 12” above the ground. If the patio abuts the house, drive a single 2 × 4 stake at each corner so one face of the stake is even with the planned edge of the patio.

Tie a mason’s string taut between an outer batterboard nail and one of the house-side (or high edge of the patio) stakes. Attach a line level (inset) to the string and adjust the stakes as needed until the string is perfectly level.

Begin setting the slope on the first layout string: stand the pole next to the batterboard and mark the height of the level mason’s string. Measure between the house (or high side) stake to the batterboard, then calculate the drop distance for the string—a common slope is 1/4” per linear foot.

Using the story pole as a guide, drive the batterboard down until the string is even with the drop distance mark. Make sure the crosspiece remains level across the top so the string’s height won’t change if you move the string later.

Set up the remaining three string lines so they are even with the outer edges of the finished patio and are just touching the first string. First install the two strings parallel to the house, and use the line level to confirm they are level. The final string (parallel to the first string) will have the proper slope when it touches the intersecting strings.

Variation: Use a rope or a garden hose to lay out curved or freeform patio edges. Mark the outline onto the ground with marking paint. Once you complete the subbase, you can repeat the process to guide the installation. Note: Curving patios still need a string layout to guide the excavation and base prep.

Make sure the string layout is perfectly square using the 3-4-5 squaring technique: starting at one of the string intersections, measure along one string and make a mark at 3 ft. (or a multiple of 3 ft.). Measure along the perpendicular string and mark at 4 ft. Measure between the two marks: the distance should equal 5 ft. If not, adjust the strings as needed until the measurements come out correctly. Repeat the process at the diagonally opposed corner. Mark the string positions onto the batterboard crosspieces.

Determine the finished height of the patio surface. If the patio abuts the house, the finished surface should be 1 to 3” below the typical threshold of an entry door. At the low end of the patio it’s desirable to have the finished surface rise at least 1” above the surrounding ground to facilitate drainage and prevent dirt and mud from washing onto the patio.

On your story pole, mark a top line for the distance from the string line (measured at the high edge of the patio) to the full excavation depth. A second line represents the distance from the string to the top of the compacted gravel base. Be sure to account for the thickness of the paving material and sand bed as needed.

Cut the sod along the project outline using a flat-end spade or a power lawn edger. To compensate for edging, extend the excavation about 6” beyond the finished patio outline. Reserve healthy sod for covering soil backfill behind the edging.

Strip the sod or vegetation inside the outlined area and then excavate the construction area to a depth that allows for a 6”-thick gravel subbase, a 1” layer of sand, and the paver thickness; account for the finished height aboveground also.

Grade and compact the soil. First use a bow rake to achieve the proper slope, and then compact the soil with a rented plate or hand tamper. Set up temporary cross strings for reference to simplify the excavation and the gravel installation later.

Use the story pole to check the depth as you work. Drive a pair of 2 × 2 stakes outside of the original string layout, and tie on the cross string so it’s just touching the layout strings. Check the depth at several points along the cross string, removing or adding soil as needed to achieve the proper depth. Once that’s done, move the cross string to the next section and repeat. Note: Thoroughly tamp any soil that’s been added to a low spot to minimize future settling. For the same reason, it’s best to use soil from the immediate area (instead of purchased topsoil) or fill low areas with compacted sand or gravel.

Variation: For loose-fill patios, install a layer of high-quality landscape fabric to inhibit weed growth before adding the gravel base. Overlap rows of fabric by at least 6”. If desired, pin the fabric in place with U-shaped wire stakes.

Add the first layer of compactable gravel (or start with landscape fabric; see Variation this page). Dump wheelbarrow loads of gravel into evenly distributed pods, then spread out each pod in all directions with a shovel and a bow rake. Use the rake to create a flat, smooth surface.

Thoroughly tamp each layer of gravel before adding more, as needed. If using a hand tamper, compact the gravel in 2”-thick layers; if using a plate compactor, compact every 4” of gravel. Use cross strings and the story pole to check the gravel height as you work. A straight 2 × 4 also helps for smoothing gravel prior to compacting and for checking for high and low spots.

Extend a plumb bob from the layout strings to the base to mark the exact corners and edges of the finished patio for the surface installation. Mark each point with paint or a small stake. Find and mark the corners of the patio by hanging the plumb bob from each string intersection. Proceed to the installation portion of your project.

Install professional-grade paver edging along chalk lines (chalk lines are snapped directly below the outlines you’ve created with the mason’s strings). The paver edge should rest on the compacted gravel.

RIGID PAVER EDGING

Choose heavy-duty edging that’s strong enough to contain your surface materials. If your patio or walkway has curves, buy plenty of notched, or flexible, edging for the curves. Also, buy 12-inch-long galvanized spikes: one for every 12 inches of edging plus extra for curves.

HOW TO INSTALL RIGID PAVER EDGING

Set the edging on top of a compacted gravel base covered with landscape fabric. Using your layout strings as guides, secure the edging with spikes driven every 12” (or as recommended by the manufacturer). Along curves, spike the edging at every tab, or as recommended.

Cover the outside of the edging with soil and/or sod after the paving is complete. Tip: On two or more sides of the patio or path, you can spike the edging minimally, in case you have to make adjustments during the paving. Anchor the edging completely after the paving is done.

BRICK PAVER EDGING

Brick edging can be laid in several different configurations (see below): on-end with its edge perpendicular to the paved surface (“soldiers”); on its long edges; or laid flat, either parallel or perpendicular to the paving. For mortared surfaces, brick can also be mortared to the edge of a concrete slab for a decorative finish (see pages 74 to 77 and 142 to 149).

HOW TO INSTALL BRICK PAVER EDGING

Excavate the edge of the patio or walkway site using a flat shovel to create a clean, vertical edge. The edge of the soil (and sod) will support the outsides of the bricks. For edging with bricks set on-end, dig a narrow trench along the perimeter of the site, setting the depth so the tops of the edging bricks will be flush with the paving surface (or just above the surface for loose materials).

Set the edging bricks into the trench after installing the gravel subbase and landscape fabric. If applicable, use your layout strings to keep the bricks in line and to check for the proper height. Backfill behind the bricks with soil and tamp well as you secure the bricks in place. Install the patio surface material. Tap the tops of the bricks with a rubber mallet and a short 2 × 4 to level them with one another (inset).

STONE EDGING

Cut stone or dressed stone makes better edging than flagstone, which often has jagged edges that create an uneven border. Semi-dressed stone, with one or more flat sides, is a good option for a more natural look.

HOW TO INSTALL STONE EDGING

Excavate the patio or walkway site and dig a perimeter trench to accommodate the stone edging. Add the landscape fabric and then a gravel base, as required. Place each stone into the trench and tap it with a rubber mallet to set it into the gravel. Use your layout strings to keep the edging in line and at the proper height.

Backfill behind the stones with soil and tamp with a shovel handle or a board to secure the stones in the trench. If desired, fill the spaces between stones with sand or soil to help lock them together.

CONCRETE CURB EDGING

Poured concrete edging is perfect for curves and custom shapes, especially when you want a continuous border at a consistent height. Keeping the edging low to the ground (about one inch above grade) makes it work well as a mowing strip, in addition to a patio or walkway border. Use fiber-reinforced concrete mix, and cut control joints into the edging to help control cracking.

Concrete edging draws a sleek, smooth line between surfaces in your yard and is especially effective for curving paths and walkways.

HOW TO INSTALL CONCRETE CURB EDGING

Lay out the contours of the edging using a rope or garden hose. For straight runs, use stakes and mason’s string to mark the layout. Make the curb at least 5” wide.

Dig a trench between the layout lines 8” wide (or 3” wider than the finished curb width) at a depth that allows for a 4”-thick (minimum) curb at the desired height above grade. Compact the soil to form a flat, solid base.

Stake along the edges of the trench, using 1 × 1 × 12” wood stakes. Drive a stake every 18” along each side edge.

Build the form sides by fastening 4”-wide strips of 1/4” hardboard to the insides of the stakes using 1” wood screws. Bend the strips to follow the desired contours.

Add spacers inside the form to maintain a consistent width. Cut the spacers from 1 × 1 to fit snugly inside the form. Set the spacers along the bottom edges of the form at 3-ft. intervals.

Fill the form with concrete mixed to a firm, workable consistency. Use a margin trowel to spread and consolidate the concrete.

Tool the concrete: once the bleed water disappears, smooth the surface with a wood float. Using a margin trowel, cut 1”-deep control joints across the width of the curb at 3-ft. intervals. Tool the side edges of the curb with an edger. Allow to cure. Seal the concrete, as directed, with an acrylic concrete sealer, and let it cure for 3 to 5 days before removing the form.

LANDSCAPE TIMBER EDGING

Pressure-treated landscape or cedar timbers make attractive, durable edging that’s easy to install. Square-edged timbers are best for geometric pavers like brick and cut stone, while loose materials and natural flagstone look best with rounded or squared timbers. Choose the size of timber depending on how bold you want the border to look.

Lumber or timber edging can be used with any patio surface material. Here, this lumber edging is not only decorative, it also holds all of the loose material in place.

HOW TO INSTALL TIMBER EDGING

During the site excavation, dig a perimeter trench for the timbers so they will install flush with the top of the patio or walkway surface (or just above the surface for loose material). Add the compacted gravel base, as required, including a 2 to 4” layer in the perimeter trench. Cut timbers to the desired length using a reciprocating saw with a long wood-cutting blade, a circular saw, or a handsaw.

Drill 1/2” holes through each timber, close to the ends and every 24” in between. Cut a length of 1/2”-diameter (#4) rebar at 24” for each hole using a reciprocating saw and metal-cutting blade. Set the timbers in the trench and make sure they lie flat. Use your layout strings as guides for leveling and setting the height of the timbers. Anchor the timbers with the rebar, driving the bar flush with the wood surface.

LUMBER EDGING

Dimension lumber makes for an inexpensive edging material and a less-massive alternative to landscape timbers; 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 lumber works well for most patios and walkways. Use only pressure-treated lumber rated for ground contact or all-heart redwood or cedar boards to prevent rot. For the stakes, use pressure-treated lumber, since they will be buried anyway and appearance is not a concern.

Wood edging is a popular choice for simple flagstone or paver walkways and for patios with a casual look.

HOW TO INSTALL LUMBER EDGING

Excavate the patio site, and dig a perimeter trench for the boards so they will install flush with the top of the patio surface (or just above the surface for loose material). Add the gravel base, as required, including a 2 to 4” layer of gravel in the trench. Cut the edging boards to length, and seal the ends with wood preservative. Cut 2 × 4 stakes about 16” long. Set the edging boards in the trench and drive a stake close to the ends of each board and every 24” in between.

Fasten the boards to the stakes with pairs of 21/2” deck screws. Where boards meet at corners and butt joints, fasten them together with screws. Use your layout strings as guides for leveling and setting the height of the edging. Backfill behind the edging to support the boards and hide the stakes.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

Loose materials can be used as filler between solid surface materials, like flagstone, or laid as the primary ground cover, as shown here.

HOW TO CREATE A GRAVEL PATHWAY

Lay out one edge of the path excavation. Use a section of hose or rope to create curves, and use stakes and string to indicate straight sections. Cut 1 × 2 spacers to set the path width and establish the second pathway edge; use another hose and/or more stakes and string to lay out the other edge. Mark both edges with marking paint.

Remove sod in the walkway area using a sod stripper or a power sod cutter (see option, at right). Excavate the soil to a depth of 4 to 6”. Measure down from a 2 × 4 placed across the path bed to fine-tune the excavation. Grade the bottom of the excavation flat using a garden rake. Note: If mulch will be used outside the path, make the excavation shallower by the depth of the mulch. Compact the soil with a plate compactor.

Option: Use a power sod cutter to strip grass from your pathway site. Available at most rental centers and large home centers, sod cutters excavate to a very even depth. The cut sod can be replanted in other parts of your lawn.

Lay landscaping fabric from edge to edge, lapping over the undisturbed ground on either side of the path. On straight sections, you may be able to run parallel to the path with a single strip; on curved paths, it’s easier to lay the fabric perpendicular to the path. Overlap all seams by 6”.

Install edging over the fabric. Shim the edging with small stones, if necessary, so the top edge is 1/2” above grade (if the path passes through grass) or 2” above grade (if it passes through a mulched area). Secure the edging with spikes. To install the second edge, use a 2 × 4 spacer gauge that’s been notched to fit over your edging (see facing page).

Stone or vertical-brick edges may be set in deeper trenches at the sides of the path. Place these on top of the fabric also. You do not have to use additional edging with paver edging, but metal (or other) edging will keep the pavers from wandering.

Trim excess fabric, then backfill behind the edging with dirt and tamp it down carefully with the end of a 2 × 4. This secures the edging and helps it to maintain its shape.

Add a 2- to 4”-thick layer of compactable gravel over the entire pathway. Rake the gravel flat. Then, spread a thin layer of your surface material over the base gravel.

Tamp the base and surface gravel together using a plate compactor. Be careful not to disturb or damage the edging with the compactor.

Fill in the pathway with the remaining surface gravel. Drag a 2 × 4 across the tops of the edging using a sawing motion, to level the gravel flush with the edging.

Set the edging brick flush with the gravel using a mallet and 2 × 4.

Tamp the surface again using the plate compactor or a hand tamper. Compact the gravel so it is slightly below the top of the edging. This will help keep the gravel from migrating out of the path.

Rinse off the pathway with a hose to wash off dirt and dust and bring out the true colors of the materials.

Stepping stones blend beautifully into many types of landscaping, including rock gardens, ponds, flower or vegetable gardens, or manicured grass lawns.

HOW TO MAKE A STEPPING STONE LANDSCAPE PATH

Excavate and prepare a bed for the path as you would for the gravel pathway (see pages 58 to 61), but use coarse building sand instead of compactable gravel for the base layer. Screed the sand flat so it’s 2” below the top of the edging. Do not tamp the sand. Tip: Low-profile plastic landscape edging is a good choice because it does not compete with the pathway.

Moisten the sand bed, then position the stepping stones in the sand, spacing them for comfortable walking and the desired appearance. As you work, place a 2 × 4 across three adjacent stones to make sure they are even with one another. Add or remove sand beneath the steppers, as needed, to stabilize and level the stones.

Pour in a layer of larger infill stones (2”-dia. river rock is seen here). Smooth the stones with a garden rake. The infill should be below the tops of the stepping stones. Reserve about 1/3 of the larger diameter rocks.

Add the smaller infill stones that will migrate down and fill in around the larger infill rocks. To help settle the rocks, you can tamp lightly with a hand tamper, but don’t get too aggressive—the larger rocks might fracture easily.

Scatter the remaining large infill stones across the infill area so they float on top of the other stones. Eventually, they will sink down lower in the pathway and you will need to lift and replace them selectively to maintain the original appearance.

VARIATIONS

Move from a formal space to a less orderly area of your landscape by creating a pathway that begins with closely spaced steppers on the formal end and gradually transforms into a mostly-gravel path on the casual end, with only occasional clusters of steppers.

Combine concrete stepping pavers with crushed rock or other small stones for a path with a cleaner, more contemporary look. Follow the same basic techniques used on these two pages, setting the pavers first, then filling in between with the desired infill material(s).

A curving brick walkway can be as much a design statement as a course for easy travel. Curves require more time than straight designs, due to the extra cutting involved, but the results can be all the more stunning.

HOW TO INSTALL A SANDSET BRICK WALKWAY

Lay out the walkway curved edges using 3/4” braided rope (or use mason’s strings for straight sections; shown as variation). Cut 1 × 2 or 2 × 2 spacers to the desired path width and then place them in-between the ropes for consistent spacing. Mark the outlines along the inside edges of the ropes onto the ground with marking paint.

Excavate the area 6” outside of the marked lines along both sides of the path. Remove soil to allow for a 4”-thick subbase of gravel, a 1” layer of sand, and the thickness of the brick pavers (minus the height of the finished paving above the ground). The finished paving typically rests about 1” aboveground for ease of lawn maintenance. Thoroughly tamp the area with a plate compactor.

Spread out an even layer of compactable gravel—enough for a 4”-thick layer after compaction. Grade the gravel to follow a downward slope of 1/4” per foot (most long walkways slope from side to side, while shorter paths or walkway sections can be sloped along their length). Use a homemade slope gauge to screed the gravel smooth and to check the slope as you work (see step 5, page 43). Tamp the subbase thoroughly with the plate compactor, making sure the surface is flat and smooth and properly sloped.

Cover the gravel base with professional-grade landscape fabric, overlapping the strips by at least 6”. If desired, tack the fabric in place with landscape staples.

Spread a 1”-layer of coarse sand over the landscape fabric. Screed the sand with a board so it is smooth, even, and flat.

Tamp the screeded sand with a hand tamper or a plate compactor. Check the slope of the surface as you go.

Begin the paving at one end of the walkway, following the desired pattern. Use 1/8”-thick hardboard spacers in-between the bricks to set the sand-joint gaps. Tip: It’s best to start the paving against a straightedge or square corner. If your walkway does not connect to a patio or stoop, set a temporary 2 × 4 with stakes at the end of the walkway to create a straight starting line.

Option: If your walkway includes long straight sections between curves, set up guidelines with stakes and mason’s strings to keep the ends of the courses straight as you pave.

Set the next few courses of brick, running them long over the side edges. With the first few courses in place, tap the bricks with a rubber mallet to bed them into the sand.

Lay out the curved edges of the finished walkway using 3/4” braided rope. Adjust the ropes as needed so that the cut bricks will be roughly symmetrical on both edges of the walkway. Also measure between the ropes to make sure the finished width will be accurate according to your layout. Trace along the ropes with a pencil to mark the cutting lines onto the bricks.

Variation: Cut field bricks after installing the edging. Mark each brick for cutting by hlding it in position and drawing the cut line across the top face.

Cut the bricks with a rented masonry saw (wet saw), following the instructions from the tool supplier. Make straight cuts with a single, full-depth cut. Curved cuts require multiple straight cuts made tangentially to the cutting line. After cutting a brick, reset it before cutting the next brick.

Align the border bricks (if applicable) snug against the edges of the field paving. Use a straightedge or level to make sure the border units are flush with the tops of the field bricks. Set the border bricks with a rubber mallet. Dampen the exposed edges of the sand bed, and then use a trowel to slice away the edge so it’s flush with the paving.

Install rigid paver edging (bendable) (see page 49) or other edge material tight against the outside of the walkway.

Fill and tamp the sand joints one or more times until the joints are completely filled. Sweep up any loose sand.

Soak the surface with water and let it dry. Cover the edging sides with soil and sod or other material, as desired.

Poured concrete walkways can be designed with straight lines, curves, or any angles you desire. The flat, hardwearing surface is ideal for frequently traveled paths and will stand up to heavy equipment and decades of snow shoveling.

SLOPING A WALKWAY

Straight slope: Set the concrete form lower on one side of the walk-way so the finished surface is flat and slopes downward at a rate of 1/4” per foot. Always slope the surface away from the house foundation or, when not near the house, toward the area best suited to accept water runoff.

Crowned slope: When a walkway does not run near the house foundation, you have the option of crowning the surface so it slopes down to both sides. To make the crown, construct a curved screed board by cutting a 2 × 2 and a 2 × 4 long enough to rest on both sides of the concrete form. Sandwich the boards together with a 1/4”-thick spacer at each end, then fasten the assembly with 4” deck screws driven at the center and the ends. Use the board to screed the concrete (see step 8, page 76).

REINFORCING A WALKWAY

As an alternative to the wire mesh reinforcement used in the following project, you can reinforce a walkway slab with metal rebar (check with the local building code requirements). For a 3-ft.-wide walkway, lay two sections of #3 rebar spaced evenly inside the concrete form. Bend the rebar as needed to follow curves or angles. Overlap pieces by 12” and tie them together with tie wire. Use wire bolsters to suspend the bar in the middle of the slab’s thickness.

HOW TO INSTALL A POURED CONCRETE WALKWAY

Lay out the precise edges of the finished walkway using stakes (or batterboards) and mason’s string (see pages 43 to 47 for additional help with setting up and using layout strings). Where possible, set stakes 12” or so outside of the walkway edges so they’re out of the way. Make sure any 90° corners are square using the 3-4-5 measuring technique. Level the strings, then lower the strings on one side of the layout to create a downward slope of 1/4” per foot (if the walkway will be crowned instead of sloped to one side, keep all strings level with one another. Cut away the sod or other plantings 6” beyond the layout lines on all sides of the site.

Excavate the site for a 4- to 6”-thick gravel subbase, plus any subgrade (below ground level) portion of the slab, as desired. Measure the depth with a story pole (see page 45) against the high-side layout strings, making sure to use a slope gauge to grade the slope 1/4” per foot away from foundations. Tamp the soil thoroughly with a plate compactor.

Cover the site with a 4- to 6”-layer of gravel and screed the surface flat, checking with a slope gauge to set the proper grade. Compact the gravel so the top surface is 4” below the finished walkway height. Reset the layout strings at the precise height of the finished walkway.

Build the concrete form with straight 2 × 4 lumber so the inside faces of the form are aligned with the strings. Drive 2 × 4 stakes for reinforcement behind butt joints. Align the form with the layout strings, and then drive stakes at each corner and every 2 to 3 ft. in between. Fasten the form to the stakes so the top inside corner of the form boards are just touching the layout strings. The tops of the stakes should be just below the tops of the form.

Add curved strips made from 1/4- to 3/8”-thick plywood hardboard or lauan to create curved corners, if desired. Secure curved strips by screwing them to wood stakes. Recheck the gravel bed inside the concrete form, making sure it is smooth and properly sloped.

Lay reinforcing wire mesh over the gravel base, keeping the edges 1 to 2” from the insides of the form. Overlap the mesh strips by 6” (one square) and tie them together with tie wire. Prop up the mesh on 2” bolsters placed every few feet and tied to the mesh with wire. Install isolation board where the walkway adjoins other slabs or structures. When you’re ready for the concrete pour, coat the insides of the form with a release agent or vegetable oil.

Drop the concrete in pods, starting at the far end of the walkway. Distribute it around the form by placing it (don’t throw it) with a shovel. As you fill, stab into the concrete with the shovel, and tap a hammer against the back sides of the form to eliminate air pockets. Continue until the form is evenly filled, slightly above the tops of the form.

Immediately screed the surface with a straight 2 × 4: two people pull the board backward in a side-to-side sawing motion with the board resting on top of the form. As you work, shovel in extra concrete to fill low spots or remove concrete from high spots, and re-screed. The goal is to create a flat surface that’s level with the top of the form.

Float the concrete surface with a magnesium float, working back and forth in broad arching strokes. Tip up the leading edge of the tool slightly to prevent gouging the surface. Stop floating once the surface is relatively smooth and has a wet sheen. Be careful not to over-float, indicated by water pooling on the surface. Allow the bleed water to disappear and the concrete to harden sufficiently (see page 144).

Use an edger to shape the side edges of the walkway along the wood form. Carefully run the edger back and forth along the form to create a smooth, rounded corner, lifting the leading edge of the tool slightly to prevent gouging.

Mark the locations of the control joints onto the top edges of the form boards, spacing the joints at intervals 11/2 times the width of the walkway.

Cut the control joints with a 1” groover guided by a straight 2 × 4 held (or fastened) across the form at the marked locations. Make several light passes back and forth until the groove reaches full depth, lifting the leading edge of the tool to prevent gouging. Remove the guide board once each joint is complete. If desired, smooth out the marks made by the groover using a magnesium trowel.

Create a nonslip surface with a broom finish: starting at the far side edge of the walkway, steadily drag a broom backward over the surface in a straight line using a single pulling motion. Repeat in single, parallel passes (with minimal or no overlap), and rinse off the broom bristles after each pass. The stiffer and coarser the broom, the rougher the texture will be.

Cure the concrete by misting the walkway with water, then covering it with clear polyethylene sheeting. Smooth out any air pockets (which can cause discoloration), and weight down the sheeting along the edges. Mist the surface and reapply the plastic daily for 1 to 2 weeks.

Concrete path molds are available in a range of styles and decorative patterns. Coloring the wet concrete is a great way to add a realistic look to the path design.

HOW TO CREATE A STRAIGHT OR 90° DECORATIVE CONCRETE PATH

Prepare the project site by leveling the ground, removing sod or soil as needed. For a more durable base, excavate the area and add 2 to 4” of compactable gravel. Grade and compact the gravel layer so it is level and flat. See pages 42 to 47 for detailed steps on layout and site preparation.

Mix a batch of concrete for the first section, following the product directions (see page 80 to add color, as we have done here). Place the form at the start of your path and level it, if desired. Shovel the wet concrete into the form to fill each cavity. Consolidate and smooth the surface of the form using a concrete margin trowel.

Promptly remove the form, and then trowel the edges of the section to create the desired finish (it may help to wet the trowel in water). For a nonslip surface, broom the section or brush it with a stiff brush. Place the form against the finished section and repeat steps 2 and 3 to complete the next section.

After removing each form, remember to trowel the edges of the section to create the desired finish. Repeat until the path is finished. If desired, rotate the form 90° with each section to vary the pattern. Cure the path by covering it with polyethylene sheeting for 5 to 7 days, lifting the plastic and misting the concrete with water each day.

Fill walkway joints with sand or mortar mix to mimic the look of hand-laid stone or brick. Sweep the sand or dry mortar into the section contours and spaces between sections. For mortar, mist the joints with water so they harden in place.

HOW TO CREATE A CURVED DECORATIVE CONCRETE PATH

After removing the form from a freshly poured section (see page 79, steps 1 through 3), reposition the form in the direction of the curve and press down to slice off the inside corner of the section (photo left). Trowel the cut edge (and the rest of the section) to finish. Pour the next section following the curve (photo right). Cut off as many sections as needed to complete the curve. Cure the path by covering it with plastic sheeting for 5 to 7 days, lifting the plastic and misting the concrete with water each day.

Sprinkle the area around the joint or joints between pavers with polymer-modified jointing sand after the concrete has cured sufficiently so that the sand does not adhere. Sweep the product into the gap to clean the paver surfaces while filling the gap.

Mist the jointing sand with clean water, taking care not to wash the sand out of the joint. Once the water dries, the polymers in the mixture will have hardened the sand to look like a mortar joint. Refresh as needed.

The natural, warm color of brick is a dramatic yet DIY-friendly upgrade for a tired looking gray slab.

HOW TO INSTALL MORTARED BRICK OVER A CONCRETE PATH

Dig a trench around the concrete path, slightly wider than the thickness of one paver. Dig the trench so it is about 31/2” below the concrete surface (for standard-sized pavers).

Sweep the old concrete, then hose off the surface and sides with water to clear away dirt and debris. Soak the pavers with water before mortaring; dry pavers absorb moisture, weakening the mortar strength. Mix a small batch of mortar according to manufacturer’s directions. For convenience, place the mortar on a scrap of plywood.

Install edging bricks by applying a 1/2”-layer of mortar to the side of the concrete slab and to one side of each brick. Set bricks into the trench, against the concrete. Brick edging should be 1/2” higher than the thickness of the brick pavers.

Finish the joints on the edging bricks with a V-shaped mortar tool, then mix and apply a 1/2”-thick bed of mortar to one end of the sidewalk using a trowel. Mortar hardens very quickly, so work in sections no larger than 4 sq. ft.

Make a screed board for smoothing the mortar by notching the ends of a straight 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 to fit between the edging bricks. The depth of the notches should equal the thickness of the pavers. Drag the screed across the mortar bed until the mortar is smooth.

Lay the paving bricks one at a time into the mortar, maintaining a 1/2” gap between pavers. (A piece of scrap plywood works well as a spacing guide.) Set the pavers by tapping them lightly with a rubber mallet.

As each section of pavers is completed, check with a straightedge or level to make sure the tops of the pavers are even. If a paver is too high, press it down or tap it with the rubber mallet; if too low, lift it out and butter its back face with mortar and reset it.

When all the pavers are installed, use a mortar bag to fill the joints between the pavers with fresh mortar. Work in 4-sq.-ft. sections, and avoid getting mortar on the tops of the pavers.

Use a V-shaped mortar tool to finish the joints as you complete each 4 sq.-ft. section. For best results, finish the longer joints first, then the shorter joints. Use a trowel to remove excess mortar.

Let the mortar dry for a few hours, then scrub the pavers with a coarse rag and water. Cover the walkway with polyethylene sheeting and let the mortar cure for at least 24 hours. Remove sheeting, but do not walk on the pavers for at least three days.

Variation: As an alternative to paving over an entire walkway (if the old concrete still looks good), add a decorative touch with a border of mortared pavers along the edges. The same treatment is great for dressing up the exposed edges of a concrete patio, stoop, or steps. To install edging along a walkway, follow the basic techniques shown in steps 1 to 4 on page 83, but set the pavers flush with the walkway surface. Position the pavers horizontally or vertically, depending on the height of the walkway and the desired effect. After the pavers are set and tooled, follow step 10 above to complete the job.

Turn a boring or failing concrete slab into an attractive walkout or entertainment space with a short utility or “Boardwalk” deck installed on top of it.

HOW TO BUILD A BOARDWALK DECK

Build and assemble the frame offsite by cutting and measuring 10-ft. 2 × 4s to length and securing them together with galvanized metal corner brackets.

Install the nailer joists by measuring and cutting parallel boards to the length of the frame. Use 2” deck screws and galvanized metal corner brackets to secure the nailer joists to the frame.

Clear away any dust and debris from the concrete slab. Set the frame atop the slab and use 8” plastic shims to level it. Glue shims in place and cut off excess so shims are flush with the frame.

Use a level as you work with the shims to ensure an even plane on which to build the deck.

Remove the frame from the slab before installing the decking. Stagger the 2 × 4s in a crosshatch pattern in opposing 45° angles from the center nailing joist. Attach the boardwalk pattern to the frame using 3” deck screws. Boards should abut one another the length of the joist and allow for at least 1” of overhang from the frame.

Mark 1” overhang on all sides of the frame using a chalk line, and cut off excess decking using a circular saw equipped with a carbide blade.

Use a helper to install the decking atop the concrete slab, checking for level and using shims to adjust as necessary.

Clear away dust and debris and stain the decking as desired.

Here we use gravel (small aggregate river rock), a common surface for paths and rock gardens, for the tread surfaces. Other tread surfaces include bricks, cobbles, and stepping stones. Even large flagstones can be fit to the tread openings.

HOW TO BUILD TIMBER & GRAVEL GARDEN STEPS

Install and level the timber cleat: mark the outline of the steps onto the ground using marking paint. Dig a trench for the cleat at the base of the steps. Add 2 to 4” of compactable gravel in the trench and compact it with a hand tamp. Cut the cleat to length and set it into the trench. Add or remove gravel beneath the cleat so it is level and its top is even with the surrounding ground or path surface.

Create trenches filled with tamped gravel for the returns (the timbers running back into the hill, perpendicular to the cleat and risers). The returns should be long enough to anchor the riser and returns of the step above. Dig trenches back into the hill for the returns and compact 2 to 4” of gravel into the trenches so each return will sit level on the cleat and gravel.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS: TIMBER STEP FRAMES

Cut and position the returns and the first riser. Using a 2 × 4 as a level extender, check to see if the backs of the returns are level with each other and adjust by adding or removing gravel in the trenches. Drill four 3/8”-dia. holes and fasten the first riser and the two returns to the cleat with spikes.

Excavate and add tamped gravel for the second set of returns. Cut and position the second riser across the ends of the first returns, leaving the correct unit run between the riser faces. Note that only the first riser doesn’t span the full width of the steps. Cut and position the returns, check for level, then pre-drill and spike the second riser and returns to the returns below.

Build the remaining steps in the same fashion. As you work, it may be necessary to alter the slope with additional excavating or backfilling (few natural hills follow a uniform slope). Add or remove soil as needed along the sides of the steps so that the returns are exposed roughly equally on both sides. Also, each tread should always be higher than the neighboring ground.

Install the final riser. Typically, the last timber does not have returns because its tread surface is integral with the path or surrounding ground. The top of this timber should be slightly higher than the ground. As an alternative, you can use returns to contain pathway material at the top of the steps.

Lay and tamp a base of compactable gravel in each step tread area. Use a 2 × 4 as a tamper. For proper compaction, tamp the gravel in 2” or thinner layers before adding more. Leave about 2” of space in each tread for the surface material.

Fill up the tread areas with gravel or other appropriate material. Irregular crushed gravel offers maximum surface stability, while smooth stones, like the river rock seen here, blend into the environment more naturally and feel better underfoot than crushed gravel and stone.

Create or improve pathways at the top and bottom of the steps. For a nice effect, build a loose-fill walkway using the same type of gravel that you used for the steps. Install a railing, if desired or if required by the local building code.

HOW TO BUILD TIMBER & CONCRETE GARDEN STEPS

Mark the sides of the step site with stakes and string. The stakes should be positioned at the front edge of the bottom step and the back edge of the top step.

Add the width of the timber (5”) to the tread depth, then measure back this distance for the stakes and drive additional stakes to mark the back edge of the first step. Connect these stakes with string to mark the digging area for the first step.

Excavate for the first step, creating a flat bed with a very slight forward slope, no more than 1/8” from back to front. The front of the excavation should be no more than 2” deep. Tamp the soil firmly.

Arrange the timbers to form the step frame and endnail them together with 12” spikes.

Set the timber frame in position. Use a carpenter’s square to make sure the frame is square, and adjust as necessary. Drill two 1” guide holes in the front timber and the back timber, 1 ft. from the ends, using a spade bit and bit extension.

Anchor the steps to the ground by driving a 21/2-ft. length of 3/4” pipe through each guide hole until the pipe is flush with the timber. When pipes are driven, make sure the frame is level from side to side and has the proper forward pitch. Excavate for the next step, making sure the bottom of the excavation is even with the top edge of the installed timbers.

Build another step frame and position it in the excavation so the front timber is directly over the rear timber on the first frame. Nail the steps together with three 12” spikes, then drill guide holes and drive two pipes through only the back timber to anchor the second frame.

Continue digging and installing the remaining frames until the steps reach full height. The back of the last step should be at ground level.

Staple plastic over the timbers to protect them from wet concrete. Cut away the plastic so it does not overhang into the frame opening.

Pour a 2” layer of compactable gravel subbase into each frame, and use a 2 × 4 to smooth it out.

Mix concrete in a wheelbarrow, adding just enough water so the concrete holds its shape when sliced with a trowel.

Shovel concrete into the bottom frame, flush with the top of the timbers. Work the concrete lightly with a garden rake to help remove air bubbles, but do not overwork the concrete.

Screed the concrete by dragging a 2 × 4 across the top of the frame. If necessary, add concrete to low areas and screed again until the surface is smooth and free of low spots.

While the concrete is still wet, scatter mixed gravel on the surface. Sand-and-gravel suppliers and garden centers sell colorful gravel designed for seeding. For best results, select a mixture with stones no larger than 1/2” in diameter.

Press the seeded gravel into the surface of the concrete using a concrete float, until the tops of the stone are flush with the surface of the concrete. Remove any concrete that spills over the edges of the frame using a trowel.

Pour concrete into the remaining steps, screeding and seeding each step before moving on to the next. For a neater appearance, use an edging tool (inset) to smooth the cracks between the timbers and the concrete as each step is finished.

When the sheen disappears from the poured concrete (4 to 6 hours after pouring), use a float to smooth out any high or low spots in each step. Be careful not to force seeded gravel too far into the concrete. Let the concrete dry overnight.

After concrete has dried overnight, apply a fine mist of water to the surface, then scrub it with a stiff brush to expose the seeded gravel.

Variation: To create a nonslip surface on smooth concrete without seeding, draw a stiff-bristled brush or broom once across the concrete while it is still wet.

Remove the plastic from the timbers, and cover the concrete with burlap. Allow the concrete to cure for several days, spraying it occasionally with water to ensure even curing. Note: Concrete residue can be cleaned from timbers using a solution of 5% muriatic acid and water.

Stone steps blend natural elegance and beauty for a stunning landscape feature in any yard. Depending on how stylized the design is and the type of stone (natural shaped or cut square), the steps can enhance either a formal or casual outdoor living area.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

HOW TO BUILD FLAGSTONE GARDEN STEPS

Measure the height and length of the slope to calculate the rise and run dimensions for each step (see page 23 for help with designing and laying out steps). Plot the footprint of your steps on the ground using marking paint. Purchase wall stones for your risers and returns in a height equal to the rise of your steps. Also buy flagstone (with approx. 40% overage) for the step treads.

Begin the excavation: for the area under the first riser and return stones, dig a trench to accommodate a 4”-layer of gravel, plus the thickness of an average flagstone tread. For the area under the back edge of the first step’s tread and the riser and return stones of the second step, dig to accommodate a 4”-layer of gravel, plus a 1”-layer of sand. Compact the soil with a 2 × 4 or 4 × 4.

Add a layer of compactable gravel to within 1” of the planned height and tamp. Add a top layer of compactable gravel and level it side to side and back to front. This top layer should be a flagstone’s thickness below grade. This will keep the rise of the first step the same as the following steps. Leave the second layer of gravel uncompacted for easy adjustment of the riser and return stones.

Set the riser stones and one or two return stones onto the gravel base. Level the riser stones side to side by adding or removing gravel as needed. Level the risers front to back with a torpedo level. Allow for a slight up-slope for the returns (the steps should slope slightly downward from back to front so the treads will drain). Seat the stones firmly in the gravel with a hand maul, protecting the stone with a wood block.

Line the excavated area for the first tread with landscape fabric, draping it to cover the insides of the risers and returns. Add layers of compactable gravel and tamp down to within 1” of the tops of the risers and returns. Fill the remainder of the bed with sand and level it side to side with a 2 × 4. Slope it slightly from back to front. This layer of sand should be a little above the first risers and returns so that the tread stones will compact down to sit on the wall stones.

Set the second group of risers and returns: first, measure the step/run distance back from the face of your first risers and set up a level mason’s string across the sand bed. Position the second-step risers and returns as you did for the first step, except these don’t need to be dug in on the bottom because the bottom tread will reduce the risers’ effective height.

Fold the fabric over the tops of the risers and trim off the excess. Set the flagstone treads of the first step like a puzzle, leaving a consistent distance between stones. Use large, heavy stones with relatively straight edges at the front of the step, overhanging the risers by about 2”.

Fill in with smaller stones near the back. Cut and dress stones where necessary using stone chisels and a maul or mason’s hammer. Finding a good arrangement takes some trial and error. Strive for fairly regular gaps, and avoid using small stones as they are easily displaced. Ideally, all stones should be at least as large as a dinner plate.

Adjust the stones so the treads form a flat surface. Use a level as a guide, and add wet sand under thinner stones or remove sand from beneath thicker stones until all the flags come close to touching the level and are stable.

Shim between treads and risers with thin shards of stone. (Do not use sand to shim here). Glue the shards in place with block and stone adhesive. Check each step to make sure there is no path for sand to wash out from beneath the treads. You can settle smaller stones in sand with a mallet, but cushion your blows with a piece of wood.

Complete the second step in the same manner as the first. The bottoms of the risers should be at the same height as the bottoms of the tread on the step below. Continue building steps to the top of the slope. Note: The top step often will not require returns.

Fill the joints between stones with sand by sweeping the sand across the treads. Use coarse, dark sand such as granite sand, or choose polymeric sand, which resists washout better than regular builder’s sand. Inspect the steps regularly for the first few weeks and make adjustments to the heights of stones as needed.

Brick pavers set in sand create a classic patio surface that’s more casual than mortared pavers. The inherent flexibility of the sandset finish allows for easy repair and maintenance or changes in the design over time. It also creates good drainage.

HOW TO INSTALL A SANDSET BRICK PATIO

Set up batterboards and layout strings in a square or rectangle that’s about 1 ft. larger than the excavation area (see pages 42 to 47 for detailed steps on layout and site preparation). Measure to make sure the string layout is square, and set the strings to follow a 1/8” per foot downward slope in the desired direction using a line level for guidance. Mark the excavation corners with stakes. The edges of the excavation should extend about 6” beyond the finished patio footprint.

Remove all sod and vegetation inside the area, reserving healthy sod for patching in around the finished patio.

Excavate the area to a depth that allows for a 6”-thick gravel subbase, a 1” layer of sand, and the paver thickness; account for the desired height of the finished surface above the surrounding ground. Use cross strings and a story pole to check the depth as you work.

Add an even 3”-layer of compactable gravel over the entire site, and then tamp with a plate compactor. Repeat with another 3” layer. The completed 6” gravel base prior to compacting must be smooth and flat, and it must follow the slope of the layout strings.

Install a layer of high-quality landscape fabric. Overlap rows of fabric by at least 6”. If desired, pin the fabric in place with U-shaped wire stakes.

Install rigid paver edging along two adjacent sides of the patio area, creating a perfect 90° corner. Option: If you’ve laid out the pavers and taken precise measurements, you can install edging along three or four sides of the patio, as desired. Trim the fabric along the back of the edging. Lay down lengths of 1”-dia. pipe in parallel lines about 3 to 6 ft. apart.

Add a 1”-thick layer of coarse sand. Smooth it out with a rake so it just covers the pipes. Dampen the sand with water, then pack it down lightly with a hand tamp.

Screed the sand perfectly flat using a straight, long 2 × 4: rest the board on top of the pipes, and pull it backward with a side-to-side sawing motion. Fill in low spots with sand as you work. Dampen, tamp, and screed the sand again until the surface is smooth and flat and firmly packed. Remove the pipe(s) in the area where you will begin the paving.

Fill the depression left by the pipe with sand, and then smooth it out with a short board or a trowel. Tamp the area with the hand tamp, and smooth again as needed so the filled-in area is perfectly flat. Note: Repeat this step as needed during the paving process.

Begin setting the border bricks, starting at the right-angle corner of the patio edging, using 1/8” hardboard spacers if necessary. Complete the border row that will be parallel to the first course of field brick, and continue several feet up the perpendicular side edge. For gentle curves, use full bricks set with slightly angled (wedge-shaped) sand joints; tighter curves require cut bricks for a good fit.

Set the first course of field brick. These bricks should be centered over the sand joints of the completed border row. Use a mason’s string tied between two bricks to align the leading edges of the first-course bricks. After setting several bricks, tap them with a rubber mallet to bed them into the sand layer. Complete the first field course, and then add some border units along the edge.

Snug a piece of edging against the installed brick and anchor it in place. Note: Install the remaining edging as the paving progresses. Continue setting the brick using the mason’s string and spacers for consistent spacing and alignment.

Check each 4-ft. section for level to make sure the bricks are even across the top. Remove low or high bricks and add or remove sand beneath to bring them flush with the surrounding bricks. Work atop a plywood platform to prevent displacing the bricks. Complete the paving.

Variation: If your patio design includes curves or rounded corners, mark bricks for cutting curves by holding each brick in position and marking the desired cutting line onto the top face, then make the cuts with a masonry saw.

Spread sand over the surface, then sweep the sand to fill the joints. Sweep the surface clean, and then tamp the surface with the plate compactor to settle the sand in the joints and lock the bricks in place.

Fill and tamp the sand joints one or more times until the joints are completely filled after compaction. Sweep up any loose sand.

Soak the surface with water and let it dry. If necessary, fill and tamp again, then hose off the surface and let it dry.

These convenient interlocking pavers are made with DIYers in mind. They are easy to install and often come with fully plotted patterns for simple design preparation and installation.

HOW TO BUILD A COBBLESTONE PAVER PATIO

Mark the corners of the finished patio with stakes, and remove any sod or other plantings in the area. Set up grade stakes and mason’s strings to guide the excavation and establish a downward slope of 1/8” per foot away from the house foundation.

Variation: Use batterboards and mason’s strings to establish the layout of the project area. See pages 42 to 47 for detailed instructions.

Excavate the site to a depth that accommodates a 4” gravel subbase, a 1” layer of sand, and the thickness of the pavers (minus the desired height above the ground). Extend the excavation 6” beyond the patio footprint. Use the layout strings or grade stakes to check the depth and slope as you work. Tamp the soil with a plate compactor.

Add compactable gravel for a 4”-thick layer after compaction. Screed the gravel flat with a straight 2 × 4 and use a level or the layout strings to make sure the surface is properly sloped. Compact the gravel thoroughly with a plate compactor.

Set up a new string layout to guide the edging installation using stakes and mason’s string. The strings should represent the inside edges of the edging material. To make sure the layout has square corners, measure diagonally between the corners: the layout is square when the measurements are equal.

Install rigid paver edging along one side edge of the patio: snap a chalk line directly under the layout string along the edge, and then remove that string. Set the edging to the line and secure it with paver edge spikes, driving in the spikes only partially (in case you have to make adjustments later).

Lay lengths of 1”-dia. metal pipe in the project area to serve as screed guides. Fill the patio area with coarse building sand to the tops of the pipes. Screed the sand smooth and flat using a long, straight 2 × 4, pulling the board back and forth with a sawing motion. Remove the pipes, fill the voids with sand, and smooth the surface flat. Tip: Dampen the sand before screeding.

Set the pavers in the chosen pattern, starting at the 90° corner formed by the patio edging and an adjacent layout string (called the bond line). Lay border pavers along one or both edges before setting the field pavers. For now, simply lay the pavers in place; later, you will bed them into the sand with the plate vibrator.

Option: Use additional layout strings to help guide the paver pattern. Set up a string that is perpendicular to the bond line, using it to align courses every few feet. Tie equidistant strings between the corners and the end of the perpendicular string to assure a right angle with the bond line.

Install the remaining pieces of edging as you near the opposite side and end of the patio, leaving enough room for the final course of field pavers (plus border units, if applicable). Cut away the edges of the sand bed so the edging rests on the gravel base only. Tip: If you don’t need to cut pavers along the edges, you can install the edging after all of the pavers are laid.

Cut pavers to fit as needed to complete the paving using a rented masonry saw (also see Making Curves on page 118). It’s preferable to cut pavers a little too small than to have very tight fits; the joint sand will fill small gaps. With the paving complete, drive the edging stakes into the rigid edging to lock the pavers in place.

Sweep joint sand over the pavers using a push broom. Continue adding sand and sweeping until the joints between pavers are nearly filled to the top surface.

Tamp the patio surface with the plate compactor. Move the compactor in circular motions, working from the outside in and overlapping rings as you go. Repeat Steps 10 and 11 until the joints are completely filled after compaction. Note: Some paver manufacturers recommend sweeping excess sand from the pavers before compacting.

A circular patio is visually dynamic and its shape makes it uniquely suited to intimate outdoor dining and entertaining spaces. When shopping for pavers, ask about color and texture options. Some suppliers may allow you to mix and match finishes for a personalized look.

HOW TO INSTALL A CIRCULAR PAVER PATIO

Create a center pivot for defining the patio layout. Drive a stake at the exact center of the desired location for the finished patio. Cut a straight 2 × 2 about 12” longer than the radius of the patio. Drill a large pilot hole at one end of the board, and fasten the board to the center of the stake with a single nail. Note: For large patio areas, use a string tied to a center nail instead of a board (inset).

Mark the ground for excavation. Measuring out from the nail, mark the board at a distance equal to the radius, plus 6”. Tape a can of marking paint to the board so the spray nozzle is centered on the mark (inset). Spray a continuous line onto the ground while pivoting the board to create a complete circle. Set up batterboards and leveled layout strings in a square that’s about 1 ft. larger than the excavated area. Remove all sod and other vegetation inside the marked circle.

Measure diagonally between opposing corners and adjust the strings as needed until the measurements are equal (the layout is square). Slope two of the parallel layout strings at 1/4” per foot using the distance between the batterboards to calculate the drop distance generally dropping away from your house.

Excavate the site to the depth recommended by the paver manufacturer. Make sure the soil is smooth, well compacted, and properly sloped to 1/8” per foot.

Prepare the subbase with a 4” layer of gravel. Thoroughly compact the gravel with a plate compactor.

Check the depth with cross strings and a story pole as you work (shown). The completed base must be smooth and flat and follow the slope setting.

Install landscape fabric over the gravel subbase. Overlap the edges of fabric strips by 6”. Trim the fabric as needed, leaving the ends a little long for now. Note: This helps keep the sand base in place longer.

Set two lengths of 1”-dia. pipe on top of the landscape fabric so that one piece spans the full diameter of the gravel base and the other spans across the base about 1/4 of the way in from the side of the circle. Align the pipes parallel to each other. Fill half of the patio site with sand even with the tops of the pipes.

Use a straight 2 × 4 to screed the sand level with the pipes. Move the short pipe to the opposite side of the site to complete the other half of the sand layer. Remove the pipes and then fill all depressions with sand. Tip: Moisten sand prior to screeding.

Position the center paver, then measure out to the edge of the site in several places to confirm that it is centered. Tip: Work on top of a piece of plywood to avoid disturbing the sand bed.

Set the first ring of pavers around the center paver. Check their positions carefully, and make sure the spacing lugs are oriented correctly. If the pavers don’t have lugs, gap them according to the manufacturer’s specifications. Note: Do not hammer or tamp the pavers into the sand bed unless the manufacturer directs otherwise.

Set the remaining pavers, completing each ring according to your layout diagram. Be sure to offset the paver joints between rows. The pavers may be labeled, requiring them to be installed in a specific order as you work around the circle. After a sizable area is laid, work from your plywood platform set atop the pavers.

Install rigid paver edging along the patio’s perimeter. Set the edging on top of the gravel subbase but not the sand bed. Tip: Dampening the sand bed along the patio edge makes it easy to cut the sand away cleanly with a trowel before setting the edging.

Inspect the paving to make sure all joints are aligned properly and all gaps are consistent. Make minor adjustments to pavers as needed using a flathead screwdriver as a pry bar. Be careful not to mar the paver edges as you pry.

Shovel joint sand over the entire patio surface, then use a push broom to sweep the sand over the pavers to fill the joints. Repeat as needed until the joints are completely filled, then sweep off excess sand.

Set the pavers into the sand bed using a plate compactor. Make a first pass along the perimeter of the patio, then compact the interior with parallel back-and-forth passes, overlapping the preceding pass slightly as you go. Note: Avoid excessive tamping to prevent damage to the paver surfaces. Add another application of sand. Tamp the surface, but make the interior passes perpendicular to those of the first tamping runs.

Refill the joints with sand a final time and sweep the surface clean. Spray thoroughly with water to settle the joint sand.

Sandset flagstone patios blend nicely with natural landscapes. Although flagstone evokes a natural feel, the patio can appear rustic or formal. This patio has clean, well-tamped joints and straight, groomed edges along the perimeter that lends to a formal feel. Plantings in the joints or a rough, natural perimeter would give the same patio a more relaxed, rustic feel.

HOW TO BUILD A SANDSET FLAGSTONE PATIO

Outline the patio base using string and stakes for straight lines and/or a rope or hose for curves. The base should extend at least 2 to 4” beyond the edges of the flagstones, except where the patio will butt up to a wall. Transfer the outline to the ground with marking paint. Remove any sod and vegetation within the base area.

Set up layout strings to guide the excavation using stakes or batterboards (see pages 42 to 47 for detailed steps on layout and site preparation). Excavate the base to a depth of 2” plus the stone thickness plus 1/2 to 1”. Slope the ground away from the house foundation at a rate of 1/4” per foot.

Lay sections of 1” pipe across the project area to serve as screed gauges. These allow you to strike off sand at a consistent depth when you drag a screed board over them. Note: Since large flagstones can be held in place adequately by the surrounding soil, edging for the patio is optional; it often looks best to allow neighboring groundcover to grow up to the edges of the stones. If you do plan to use edging, install it now.

Fill the site with coarse sand slightly above the screed gauges. With a helper, drag a straight 2 × 4 across the screed gauges to level off the sand. Use a screed board that’s long enough so that you can avoid stepping in the sand. Work the screed in a back-and-forth sawing motion. Remove the pipes once each section is finished, fill in the voids, and smooth the surface flat.

Arrange your flagstones into groups according to size and shape. As a general rule, start paving with the broadest stones and fill in around them with increasingly smaller pieces, but appearance and sight lines are also important: if there is one nice stone with a flat surface and good color, feature it in the center of the patio. Or, if some of the patio will be visible from the house, choose nicer stones for these areas.

Begin by laying large, thick stones around the perimeter of the patio. Leave a consistent gap of about 1” between stones by matching pieces like a puzzle and cutting and dressing stones as needed. The outer edge of the patio should form smooth curves (or straight lines) without jutting pieces or abrupt irregularities. Level stones as needed by prying up with a spud bar and adding or removing sand underneath.

Fill in around the larger stones with smaller pieces cut to fit the spaces, as needed, working from the outside in. After setting a band of stones a few courses wide, lay a 2 × 4 across the stones to make sure they’re level with one another. Add or remove sand below to adjust their height, and dampen the sand occasionally to make it easier to work with.

Fill the joints between stones with sand-based, weed-seed-free soil. Sweep the soil across the patio surface to fill the cracks, and then water the soil so it settles. Repeat as needed until the soil reaches the desired level. Plant plugs or seeds for groundcover to grow up between the stones, if desired.

Variation: To finish the patio with sand instead of soil and plants, spread sand over the patio and sweep across the stones with a push broom to fill the joints. Pack the sand with your fingers or a piece of wood. Spray the entire area with water to help compact the sand. Let the patio dry. Repeat filling and spraying until the joints are full and the stones are securely locked in place.

A permeable subbase looks a little like a typical compacted gravel subbase, but because the open-grade drainage rock is devoid of fines it does not form a solid layer and thus it allows water to run through, not off.

The thickness of your permeable subbase depends on the soil conditions. For stable soil with good drainage, a 4 to 6” subbase is adequate. If you have loamy or sandy soil, go as thick as 10”, with a layer of larger-diameter drainage rock. Adding an underlayment of geogrid textile will help stabilize the subbase in such cases. An underlayment is not helpful in stable soil with good drainage.

The components of a permeable subbase, from bottom to top, include a 4 to 6” layer of 11/2” diameter open-grade drainage rock (limestone is shown here); above that, a 2 to 4” layer of open-grade rock; a top layer of coarse sand or pulverized granite for use as a setting bed for flagstone or masonry units.

HOW TO INSTALL A PERMEABLE SUBBASE

Drive corner posts with a maul and outline the patio area. Run mason’s lines between the corner posts. Ideally, the patio should slope away from an adjoining house at a rate of around 1/2” for every 10 ft. Set a level line along the edges of the patio perpendicular to the house. Adjust the line downward to create the 1/4” per 1-ft. slope.

Begin excavating the site. A typical permeable subbase is 8” below grade when you allow for the thickness of the setting layer and the pavers or other surfacing. Use your layout strings to establish your digging depth. Measure the distance from the mason’s line to the ground and add the depth of your excavation—8” in the project seen here. Make a story pole with markings that match the distance from the planned bottom of the excavation to the mason’s line. Keep the lines in place as you dig (this does create an obstacle but it is the best way to assure that you don’t overdig).

Excavate the patio site using the story pole as a depth guide. Be sure to call (in the US, simply dial “811”) and have any utility lines flagged before you begin digging. Be careful not to dig too deeply, as the best base for your subbase is undisturbed earth. Once the excavation is complete, remove the strings and prepare for the installation of the subbase.

A permeable base is made with open-grade rock, which is simply landscape rock that has no fines or binders, as typical subbase (often called Class V or Class II) does. The bottom layer should be rock that is not smooth and has diameters of 11/2” to 2” inches. Spread a 2- to 4”-deep layer of rock over the excavation area. OPTION: Install a layer of landscape fabric over the site to inhibit weeds. Landscape fabric can be installed under the subbase or on top of the subbase, but must be under the setting base layer.

Spread the rock out into an even layer. Use a garden rake or landscape rake to spread it. The subbase should extend past the planned edges of the project area by at least 10” on all open sides.

Tamp the rock to compact it. You can use a hand tamper, but for best results use a rented plate compactor. This is a very important part of creating a solid patio base, so be sure to be diligent with your efforts. Compact the rock as you go: do not compact more than 2” of material at one time. Wear foam ear plugs or other ear protection.

Add additional layers of large rock until the base layer is at least 4” thick. Then, switch to a smaller open-grade rock for the next layer. Here, 3/4”-dia. buff limestone is being used. Add, spread, and compact the smaller-grade rock until the leveled surface follows the grade of the patio and the surface of the rock layer is 2”, plus the thickness of your surfacing material, below grade at the top of the worksite. This completes your permeable subbase. Add a sand setting layer and pavers according to the demands of your project.

The 16 x 16” wet-cast concrete pavers would shed rainwater and runoff if they were butted against one another in the traditional manner. By leaving a 3” gap filled with pulverized granite, you create a route for water to soak into the permeable subbase and subsoil.

HOW TO INSTALL A SPACED-PAVER PATIO

Prepare a permeable subbase that extends at least 10” past the planned borders of the patio where possible. Install rigid paver edging around the border of the patio area to contain the coarse sand or crushed granite setting base material.

Embed 1”-dia. pieces of conduit into the sand at 4- to 6-ft. intervals, making sure the conduit pieces are flush with one another and follow any slope you want to build into the patio (a 1/2” in 10-ft. slope away from the house is a good minimum). Scrape a piece of straight 2 × 4 along strips of adjoining conduit to level the paver setting medium. Slowly move the 2 × 4 back and forth in a sawing motion. Avoid walking on the setting bed once it is smooth. Remove the conduit and backfill the depressions.

Lay a setting bed that is at least 2” thick on top of the subbase. Level the setting bed. Do not use a power plate compactor on this bed, as it will make adjusting the pavers very difficult. It is okay to use a hand tamper to level things out and lightly compact the material.

Starting at a corner, set four tiles, using a cross spacer (see previous page) to position the pavers. Note: When using spacers to lay out a patio next to a house, always start at the house and work outward. In cases (such as the example seen here) where you are working in a closed corner, choose that corner to start. That way, if the corner is slightly out of square, which is common, you can make it up at the open sides of the patio where it is less noticeable.

Continue to set pavers onto the setting bed, fanning outward from the corner where you started. Rely on the spacer to position the pavers, and go back to recheck the gaps as you work. For best results, make many spacers and leave them in place as you work.

Once you’ve set several pavers, also check to make sure you are staying level. Lay a straight 2 × 4 across the tops and look for gaps between the straightedge and the pavers.

Add or remove bedding base from beneath the pavers as needed to bring them to level. Use some restraint here, as it is very easy to throw off your layout by adding too much bedding.

Use a rubber mallet and a scrap of 2 × 4 to adjust out-of-kilter pavers. Again, use restraint here and be mindful of the lines formed by the grid pattern. Even slight deviations will show up very clearly.

Place all the pavers, then add filler between the pavers. Here, the same crushed (also called composted) granite that was used for the setting base is used to fill in the gaps. Keep a supply of the material around, as it is likely you’ll need to refresh it from time to time as the level gets lower.

Option: Fill the spaces between the pavers with topsoil or potting soil so you can add attractive groundcover plants that don’t mind being underfoot. Some may even add a pleasant fragrance as you walk across them. For areas with full sun, consider Creeping Thyme or Elfin Thyme. In partial sun, Goldmoss Sedum, Chamomile, Dichondra, and Irish Moss work well. In shady areas, go with Corsican Sandwort or Sweet Woodruff. Or, simply plant grass.

The moldable nature of poured concrete makes it ideal for creating patios with curves and custom shapes in addition to perfect squares and rectangles. If your patio plans call for a neighboring concrete walkway, see pages 72 to 77.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

Well-constructed forms and properly prepared foundational elements will ensure your slab is structurally sound.

HOW TO BUILD A ROUND CONCRETE PATIO

Establish layout lines for the site excavation using batterboards, mason’s string, and inverted marking paint. Set the lines so they reach at least 12” beyond the work area on all sides. Plan for the gravel base to extend 12” beyond the slab. Use two pairs of perpendicular batterboards with strings to establish the centerpoint of a round patio (where the strings intersect). To create a rough outline for the patio excavation, drive a stake at the centerpoint and then attach a string to the top of the stake. Tape the other end of the string to a can of inverted marking paint so the distance from the stake to the can equals the radius of the circle, including the gravel base; mark the outline.

Cut the sod on the perimeter of the excavation area to define where to dig. For better access, first remove the batterboards (or at least the strings). A lawn edger works well for cutting the outline into the sod (be sure to wear safety equipment).

Excavate the site for a 6- to 8”-thick compactable gravel subbase plus any sub-grade (below ground level) portion of the slab. If building next to your house, grade the soil so it slopes away from the house at 1/8” per foot. Measure down from the leveled cross strings with a story pole to gauge the depth as you work. Compact the soil after grading using a plate compactor or a hand tamper.

Fill the excavation area with a 4”-thick layer of compactable gravel. Use an upside-down bow or garden rake to move the rock around. Rake the rock until it is level and follows the grade of the soil base.

Use a plate compactor to tamp the first 4” of graded compactable gravel. Add another 2 to 4” layer of gravel until the top surface will compact to the finished level. Use cross strings and the story pole to make sure the subbase is uniform and follows the 1/8” per ft. slope. Tamp until the gravel is compacted and at the correct height relative to your lines.

Set level lines for the form height. Replace batterboards and retie the mason’s lines so they are level. If you are making a circular patio, as seen here, add intermediate stakes between the batterboards and the tie lines to divide the circle into at least eight segments. Drop a plumb bob from the point where the lines intersect, and drive a stake at this centerpoint. Use this stake to create a string guide and redraw the patio outline (inset).

Drive stakes for anchoring the forms around the perimeter of the patio, just outside the outline. Drive the stakes deep enough that they will be beneath the tops of the forms. Use a hand maul or sledgehammer to drive the stakes. To prevent them from splitting, use a scrap 2 × 4 as a hammer block to absorb the blows. Drive a stake at each point where a string intersects the patio outline.

Install forms. Here, 7/16”-thick pieces of hardboard lap siding have been rip-cut into 31/2” strips to make bendable forms. Cut each strip long enough to span three stakes as it follows the patio outline. Screw the strip to the middle stake first, making sure the top is the correct distance down from the layout string. Bend the form to follow the outline and attach it to the other stakes.

Drive stakes behind the forms anywhere where the strips require additional bending or anchoring to follow the round outline. Attach the forms to the stakes. Note: If you are installing straight 2 × 4 forms, drive screws through the outsides of the stake and into the form boards to make them easier to remove later.

Lay wire mesh over the gravel base, keeping the edges 1 to 2” from the insides of the form. Overlap the mesh strips by 6” and tie them together with tie wire. Prop up the mesh on 2” wire bolsters placed every few feet and tied to the mesh with wire. If required, install isolation board along the house foundation.

Place 4,000 psi concrete in the form, starting at the side farthest from the concrete source. Before pouring, construct access ramps so wheelbarrows can roll over the forms without damaging them, and coat the insides of the form with a release agent or vegetable oil to prevent the forms from sticking. Distribute the concrete with a shovel or masonry hoe. As you fill, hammer against the outsides of the forms to eliminate air pockets.

Screed the surface with a long, straight 2 × 4: have two people pull the board backward in a side-to-side sawing motion, with the board resting on top of the form. As you work, shovel in extra concrete to fill the low spots or remove concrete from high spots, and re-screed. The goal is to create a flat surface that’s level with the top of the form.

Float the concrete surface with a bull float: without applying pressure, push and pull the float in straight, parallel passes, overlapping each pass slightly with the next. Slightly tip up the leading edge of the float to prevent gouging the surface. Stop floating once the surface is relatively smooth and has a wet sheen. Be careful not to over-float, indicated by water pooling on the surface. Allow the bleed water to disappear.

Use an edger to shape all edges of the slab that contact the wood form. Carefully run the edger back and forth along the form to create a smooth, rounded corner. Slightly lift the leading edge of the tool as needed to prevent gouging.

Cut a control joint (if required) using a 1” groover guided by a straight 2 × 4. In most cases, you’ll need to erect a temporary bridge to allow access for cutting in the center of the patio. Take great care here. Be sure to cut grooves while concrete is still workable. Make several light passes back and forth until the groove reaches full depth, lifting the leading edge of the tool to prevent gouging.

Flatten ridges and create a smooth surface with a magnesium trowel. This will create a smooth surface that takes a finish well once the concrete has dried. Another finishing option is simply to skip the additional floating. Then, before the concrete dries completely, brush lightly with a push broom to create a nonslip “broomed” surface.

Cure the concrete by misting the slab with water, then covering it with a single piece of polyethylene sheeting. Smooth out any air pockets (which can cause discoloration), and weight the sheeting along the edges. Mist the slab and reapply the plastic daily for 1 to 2 weeks.

Nothing dresses up an old concrete patio like mortared pavers. The mortaring process takes more time and effort than many finishing techniques, but the look is timeless; and the surface is extremely durable.

HOW TO INSTALL A MORTARED PAVER PATIO

Prepare the patio surface for mortar by thoroughly cleaning the concrete with a commercial concrete cleaner and/or a pressure washer. Make sure the surface is completely free of dirt, grease, oil, and waxy residue.

Mist the concrete with water to prevent premature drying of the mortar bed, and then mix a batch of mortar as directed by the manufacturer. Tip: Install isolation board along the foundation wall if the paving abuts the house; this prevents the mortar from bonding with the foundation.

Dry-lay the border pavers along the edge of the patio slab. Gap the pavers to simulate the mortar joints using spacers cut from plywood equal to the joint thickness (3/8 or 1/2” is typical). Adjust the pavers as needed to create a pleasing layout with the fewest cuts possible. Mark the paver locations on the slab and then set pavers aside.

Begin laying the border pavers by spreading a 1/2”-thick layer of mortar for three or four pavers along one edge of the patio using a mason’s trowel. Lay the first few pavers, buttering the leading edge of each with enough mortar to create the desired joint thickness. Press or tap each paver in place to slightly compress the mortar bed. If necessary, cut bricks with a rented masonry saw.

Remove excess mortar from the tops and sides of the pavers. Use a level to make sure the pavers are even across the tops, and check the mortar joints for uniform thickness. Tool the joints with a jointer as you go. Repeat the process to lay the remaining border pavers. Allow mortar to dry.

Option: To conceal the edges of a raised slab, build wood forms similar to concrete forms. Set a gap between the forms and slab equal to the paver thickness plus 1/2”.

Dry lay the field pavers without buttering them. Use the plywood spacers to set the gaps for mortar joints. Cut end pavers as needed with a rented masonry saw. Tip: Keep the courses straight by setting the pavers along a string line referenced from the border pavers. Remove dry-laid pavers.

Spread and then screed mortar for the field pavers. Trowel on a 1/2”-thick layer of mortar inside the border, covering only about 3 or 4 sq. ft. to allow for working time before the mortar sets. Screed the mortar to a uniform 1/2” thickness using a notched board set atop the border pavers (set the interior end on a lumber spacer, as needed).

As you work, check the heights of the pavers with a level or a straight 2 × 4 to make sure all units are level with one another. If a paver is too high, press it down or tap it with a rubber mallet; if too low, lift it out and butter its back face with mortar and reset it. Repeat steps 6 through 8 to complete the paver installation, and then let the mortar bed dry.

Fill the paver joints with fresh mortar using a mortar bag to keep the paver faces clean. Within each working section, fill the long joints between courses first, and then do the short joints between the paver ends. Overfill the joints slightly.

Tool the joints with a jointing tool—again, complete the long joints first and then fill the next section. As the mortar begins to set (turns from glossy wet to flat gray) in each tooled section, scrape off excess mortar with a pointing trowel, being careful not to smear mortar onto the pavers.

Let the mortar joints dry for a few hours, and then scrub the pavers with a wet burlap rag to remove excess mortar and any other residue. Cover the surface with plastic for 48 hours. Remove the plastic, and let the surface cure undisturbed for one week before using the patio.

Post-footing diameter and depth are essential for proper deck support. The requirements differ from locality to locality based on frost level (the footing should be poured below frost level). Be aware that requirements for minimum footing diameter have become more stringent in recent years; footings that support important structural members, such as beams, often need to be 12 in. or 16 in. or even wider in diameter. The 8-in.dia. concrete tube forms you see at the building center are best reserved for fence posts.

Ledger flashing (usually metal or reinforced plastic) must be positioned according to code—wrapping over the top of the ledger and under the building paper and siding—to prevent water from infiltrating between the ledger and the wall.

Beam overhangs or “cantilever” are strictly regulated by code and vary depending on the type of wood and thickness of the beam. Generally, the cantilever should not exceed 1” in length for every 4” of joist span. If you want to design a cantilever in your deck greater than one-quarter of the span of the beam, you will probably need to use steel beams.

Engineered beams, such as a laminated wood product or steel girder, should be used on decks with very long joist spans, where standard dimension lumber is not adequate for the load. Engineered beams for decks must be rated for exterior use.

Railings are required by local codes for decks more than 30” above the ground and must usually be at least 36” in height. Bottom rails must be positioned with no more than 4” of open space below them. Balusters, whether vertical or horizontal, can be spaced no more than 4” apart.

Stairs must be at least 36” wide, although 48” is preferable. Vertical step risers should be a maximum of 7 3/4” high—if left open, the opening must not be greater than 4”. Treads should be a minimum of 10” deep. Variation among risers, or among treads, should not exceed 3/8”. Railing tops should be 34” to 38” above tread nosings, and a grippable handrail is required for stairs of more than four treads. You should also install a landing pad at the base of the stairs of at least 3 ft. × 3 ft.

Beams or joists must either sit on top of posts in an approved saddle, or be notched into a post that is at least 6 × 6”. Either 4 × 4” or 4 × 6” lumber can be used for posts 8 ft. high or less (measured to the underside of the beam). Longer posts must be 6 × 6”. Joists cannot be attached to posts with through-bolts, even when mortises have been cut into the posts.

Beam assemblies. Laminated deck beams (two or more pieces of dimensional lumber are attached face-to-face) must be fastened together with staggered rows of 10d galvanized nails or 3” deck screws, spaced 16” on center. Beams of three members must be secured from both sides. Exterior construction adhesive is also recommended for the lamination.

Deck footing sizes vary and are calculated based on both the load of the deck and the makeup of the soil. Local codes usually specify a formula for calculating post-footing sizes, but bigger is better. Posts can be connected to footings with a post base hardware or sunk into the cement of the footings (generally, a post base is preferred because it eliminates ground contact that can cause the post to rot).

Ledger and rim joists. The house siding must be removed prior to fastening a ledger to a rim joist. Use either 3/8” or 1/2” diameter by 4” long galvanized lag screws (check with your local building department) or through-bolts with washers and nuts. The fasteners must be staggered in two rows, spaced appropriately: 2” from ends and top, 5 1/2” between fasteners on 2 × 8 ledger; 6 1/2” on 2 × 10; and 7 1/2” on 2 × 12.

Ledgers and concrete walls. Ledgers fastened to solid concrete must be attached with bolts and washers driven into approved expansion, epoxy, or adhesive anchors.

Ledgers and block walls. When fastening ledgers to hollow concrete block walls, secure the attachment bolts to the wall with approved epoxy anchors (also called acrylic anchors).

Railing posts. Code no longer allows for railing posts to be notched where they attach to the deck rim. Posts should be fastened to deck rim joists with pairs of through-bolts and washers and nuts, or attached to the decking with appropriate post base hardware.

Stair lighting. Deck stairs must be illuminated at night from a light located at the top of the landing. The light can be switch-controlled from inside the house, motion-controlled, or used in conjunction with a timer switch.

Chimney chases and bays. When framing a deck around a chimney or bay window, a suitable double header must be added where the ledger is spliced to accommodate the obstruction. The type of header shown here can span a maximum of 6 ft.

Rim joist connections. Attach rim joists to the end of each joist with a minimum of three #10 × 3” exterior wood screws. Secure the decking to both the rim joist and the perpendicular joist using the same deck screws.

You may toenail joists to a beam only if the deck is attached to the house. Best practice is to secure joists to the beam using a hurricane clip.

Install staggered fasteners on the ledger board using spacing specified in the table below.

Ledger boards should be pressure-treated lumber that’s at least 2 × 8 in size. The ledger board should be the same width as the joists that will be supported by it.

Use the correct size galvanized steel or stainless steel joist hanger. Attach the joist hanger using the fastener specified by the hanger manufacturer. Install a fastener in every round and oblong hole.

One way to attach a beam to a 6 × 6 post is to notch the post and secure the beam using 1/2” diameter galvanized steel machine bolts and washers. Or, you can mount beams on top of posts with galvanized post cap hardware.

Joists may not be attached to posts with through bolts, even when mortises are cut into the posts to house the joists.

Install a ledger to anchor the deck to the house and to serve as reference for laying out footings (pages 166 to 171). Use batterboards and mason’s strings to pinpoint the right locations for the footings, and check to make sure the layout is square by measuring the diagonals: if diagonal measurements are the same, the layout is square.

Pour concrete post footings (pages 172 to 183), and install metal post anchors (pages 183 to 188). Set and brace the posts, attach them to the post anchors, and mark the posts for cutting at the point where the beam will be attached (page 189).

Fasten the beam to the main posts with post caps (pages 190 to 195). Install the outside joists and the header joist, using galvanized nails. Measure between the outer rim joists and then cut and install a front rim joist parallel to the ledger.

Install the internal joists using metal joist hangers at the ledger (pages 196 to 201). Attach the other ends using hangers or nails according to your approved plan.

Lay decking boards, and trim them to length after installation (pages 202 to 204). If desired for appearance, clad the structural members with fascia boards (page 204).

Build the deck stairs (pages 206 to 209). If three or more stairs are built a grippable handrail is required.

Install a railing around the deck and stairway (pages 210 to 219). A railing adds a decorative touch and is required on any deck that is more than 30” above the ground.

A deck ledger (shown in cross section) is usually made of pressure-treated lumber. Lap siding is cut away to expose sheathing and to provide a flat surface for attaching the ledger. Galvanized flashing tucked under siding prevents moisture damage to wood. Countersunk 1/2 × 4” lag screws hold ledger to header joist inside house. If there is access to the space behind the header joist, such as in an unfinished basement, attach the ledger with carriage bolts, washers, and nuts.

HOW TO CUT OUT SIDING FOR A LEDGER BOARD

Draw an outline showing where the deck will fit against the house, using a level as a guide. Include the thickness of the outside joists and any decorative facing boards that will be installed.

Cut out the siding along the outline, using a circular saw. Set the blade depth to the same thickness as the siding, so that the blade does not cut into the sheathing.

Use a chisel to cut the siding at the ends of the cutout or anywhere the circular saw cannot reach. Hold the chisel with the bevel side facing into the cutout area. Use a claw hammer to pry off the siding and a pry bar as necessary to pop stubborn nails holding siding over the cutout area.

Measure and cut the ledger from pressure-treated lumber. Remember that the ledger will be shorter than the overall length of the cutout.

HOW TO ATTACH A LEDGER TO A RIM JOIST

Remove the old ledger board if you are replacing a deck. Also inspect and remove any deteriorated wood in and around the ledge installation area. If you are installing a deck where none was previously, create a cutout in the siding (see previous page).

Install a backing of building paper or self-adhesive moisture barrier in the ledger opening, making sure the material is securely tucked behind the siding and it extends past the gap where the rim joist meets the foundation wall. Tuck Z-flashing (galvanized steel or plastic) behind the siding to create coverage for the top of the ledger. Overlap vertical joints in the flashing by at least 4”. Friction fit the flashing only—do not penetrate it with fasteners.

Position the ledger board in the opening, propping it from below with 2 × 4 braces to hold it in place. Tack the ledger in place with 8d galvanized nails.

Attach the ledger board with lag screws. Many codes allow 3/8” dia. lags, but many also require 1/2” dia. fasteners—check with your local building inspector. The lags should be installed in pairs with the fasteners offset by at least 1” so they are not aligned. Spacing should be no closer than 16” apart. If you are counterboring for the lags (See Sidebar, previous page) drill the counterbore first (top photo) and then the guide hole (bottom).

Attach the ledger to the wall with 3/8 or 1/2 × 4” lag screws and washers, using a ratchet wrench and socket or an impact driver.

Seal around the lag screw heads with silicone caulk. Also seal the crack between the wall and the sides and bottom of the ledger. Apply a full bead of the silicone caulk between the top of the Z-flashing and the top of the cutout in the siding.

HOW TO ATTACH A LEDGER TO A MASONRY FOUNDATION WALL

Measure and cut the ledger. The ledger should be slightly shorter than the overall length of the outline. Mark and drill 1/2”-deep counterbores (1 3/8” dia.) for the lag screws you’ll use to attach the ledger, according to your plan. Drill the counterbore first and then drill the smaller guide holes for the lag screw shanks.

Draw an outline of the deck on the wall, using a level as a guide. Center the ledger in the outline, and brace in position. Mark the pilot-hole locations on the wall, using an awl or nail. Remove the ledger.

Drill anchor holes 3” deep into the wall, using a masonry bit large enough for the anchors.

Drive lead masonry anchors for 1/2” lag screws into the holes, using a rubber mallet.

Attach the ledger to the wall with 1/2 × 4” lag screws and washers, using a ratchet wrench or impact driver. Tighten screws firmly, but do not overtighten.

Seal the cracks between the wall and ledger with silicone caulk. Also seal the lag screw heads.

HOW TO ATTACH A LEDGER TO STUCCO

Draw the outline of the deck ledger on the wall, using a level as a guide. The ledger should be located so you’ll be attaching it securely to the rim joist of your house. Measure and cut the ledger, and drill pilot holes at lag screw locations. Brace the ledger against the wall, and transfer the hole locations onto the stucco, using a nail or awl.

Remove the ledger. Drill guide holes through the stucco layer of the wall, using a 1/2” masonry bit.

Extend each pilot hole through the sheathing and into the rim joist, using a 3/8” bit. Reposition the ledger and brace it in place.

Attach the ledger to the wall with lag screws and washers, using a ratchet wrench and socket or an impact driver. Seal the lag screw heads and the cracks between the wall and ledger with silicone caulk.

Mason’s strings stretched between the ledger and the batterboards are used to position footings for deck posts. Use a plumb bob and wire flags or stakes to mark the ground at the exact centerpoints of footings. Always double check your measurements at this point because any variations can have critical consequences for the rest of the construction.”

HOW TO LOCATE POST FOOTINGS

Use your design plan to find distance (A). Measure from the side of the deck to the center of each outside post. Use your elevation drawings to find the height of each deck post.

Cut 2 × 4 stakes for batterboards, each about 8” to 12” longer than post height. Trim one end of each stake to a point, using a circular saw. Cut 2 × 4 crosspieces, each about 2 ft. long.

Assemble the batterboards by attaching crosspieces to the stakes with 2 1/2” wallboard screws. Crosspieces should be about 2” below the tops of the stakes.

Transfer measurement A (step 1) to the ledger, and mark reference points at each end of the ledger. String lines will be stretched from these points on the ledger. When measuring, remember to allow for outside joists and facing that will be butted to the ends of the ledger.

Drive a batterboard 6” into the ground, about 2 ft. past the post location. The crosspiece of the batterboard should be parallel to the ledger.

Drive a 10d nail into the bottom of the ledger at the reference point (step 4). Tie a mason’s string to the nail.

Extend the mason’s string so that it is taut and perpendicular to the ledger. Use a framing square as a guide. Secure the string temporarily by wrapping it several times around the batterboard.

Check the mason’s string for square using the “3-4-5 method.” First, measure along the ledger 3 ft. from the mason’s string and mark a point, using a felt-tipped pen.

Measure the mason’s string 4 ft. from the edge of the ledger, and mark with masking tape.

Measure the distance between the marks. If the string is perpendicular to the ledger, the distance will be exactly 5 ft. If necessary, move the string left or right on the batterboard until the distance between the marks is 5 ft.

Drive a 10d nail into the top of the batterboard at the string location. Leave about 2” of nail exposed. Tie the string to the nail.

Hang a line level on the mason’s string. Raise or lower the string until it is level. Locate the other outside post footing, repeating steps 5 to 12.

Measure along the mason’s strings from the ledger to find the centerpoint of the posts. Mark the centerpoints on the strings, using masking tape.

Drive additional batterboards into the ground, about 2 ft. outside of the mason’s strings and lined up with the post centerpoint marks (step 13).

Align a third cross string with the centerpoint marks on the first strings. Drive 10d nails in the new batterboards, and tie off the cross strings on the nails. The cross string should be close to, but not touching, the first strings.

Check the strings for square by measuring distances A-B and C-D. Measure the diagonals A-D and B-C from the edge of the ledger to the opposite corners. If the strings are square, measurement A-B will be the same as C-D, and diagonal A-D will be the same as B-C. If necessary, adjust the strings on the batterboards until they are square.

Measure along the cross string and mark the centerpoints of any posts that will be installed between the outside posts.

Use a plumb bob to mark the post centerpoints on the ground, directly under the marks on the mason’s strings. Drive a stake into the ground at each point. Remove the mason’s strings before digging the footings.

Post-hole diggers are relatively inexpensive and extremely useful. Digging a large deck footing hole will take a long time, but you can work at your own pace. You can also make the hole any size you wish (power augers are limited to three or four standard bit sizes).

HOW TO DIG & PREPARE HOLES FOR FOOTINGS

Dig holes for post footings with a clamshell digger or power auger, centering the holes on the layout stakes. For holes deeper than 35”, use a power auger.

Measure hole depth. Local building codes specify depth of footings. Cut away tree roots, if necessary, using a pruning saw.

Pour 2” to 3” of loose gravel in the bottom of each footing hole. Gravel will provide drainage under concrete footings.

Add 2” to hole depth so that footings will be above ground level. Cut concrete tube forms to length, using a reciprocating saw or handsaw. Make sure the cuts are straight.

Insert the tubes into footing holes, leaving 2” of the tube above ground level. Check the tops of the tubes for level and adjust as necessary. Pack soil around the tubes to hold them in place.

HOW TO MIX CONCRETE BY HAND

Empty one or two bags of dry concrete mix into a wheelbarrow or a mortar box. Note: concrete is sold in both 60- and 80-pound bags so be sure to use the correct bag size when calculating how much you’ll need. Blend the dry mix with a masonry hoe to break up any hard clumps.

Form a hollow in the center of the dry mix, and slowly pour a small amount of water into the hollow. Blend it in using the masonry hoe. Be sure to wear protective gloves and a dust mask.

Add more water gradually, mixing thoroughly until the concrete is firm enough to hold its shape when sliced with a trowel.

HOW TO MIX CONCRETE WITH A CONCRETE MIXER

Empty premixed concrete bags into a mortar box or wheelbarrow. Form a hollow in the mound of dry mix, and then pour water into the hollow. Start with 3/4 of the estimated water amount per 80-lb. bag.

Work the material with a hoe, continuing to add water until a pancake batter consistency is achieved. Clear out any dry pockets from the corners. Do not overwork the mix. Also, keep track of how much water you use in the first batch so you will have a reliable guideline for subsequent batches.

HOW TO POUR CONCRETE FOOTINGS IN A TUBE FORM

Dig postholes and insert a concrete tube form of the correct size (page 179). The tube form should be stabilized and level, with the top at least 2” above grade. An easy way to stabilize it is simply to drive a single drywall screw through the inside surface of the form and into scrap 2 × 4 braces. You can also backfill around the form with dirt, but it’s better to do this after the concrete footing is dry so you can properly tamp the backfill dirt without worrying about damaging the tube form or knocking it out of level. Pour concrete slowly into the tube form, guiding concrete from the wheelbarrow with a shovel. Fill about half of the form, using a long rod to tamp the concrete, filling any air gaps in the footing. Then fill the form to the top, crowning it slightly.

Use a 2 × 4 scrap as a screed to strike off excess concrete and create a relatively smooth surface. The concrete still should crown slightly in the form—this allows it to shed water once it is cured.

Insert a J-bolt at an angle into the wet concrete at the center of the footing. Note: If you are pouring multiple footings (normally the case) double-check the location and alignment of the J-bolts compared to your layout lines. Adjust the J-bolts if necessary by re-setting them.

Lower the J-bolt slowly into the concrete, wiggling it slightly to eliminate any air gaps and let the concrete fill back in around the bolt shank. Tip: Wrap a little duct tape around the threaded end of the bolt to protect the part that will be exposed from the wet concrete.

Set the J-bolt so 3/4” to 1” is exposed above the concrete.

Suspend a plumb bob from your layout lines (re-tie them if you had to remove them to excavate the holes) and confirm that the J-bolts are still in proper location and alignment.

Use a torpedo level to make sure the J-bolt is plumb. If necessary, adjust the bolt and repack the concrete. Let the concrete cure, then cut away the exposed portion of tube with a utility knife if its appearance bothers you. Backfill around the footing with dirt, tamping it into the hole with the end of a 2 × 4 as you fill.

HOW TO ATTACH POST ANCHORS

Mark the top of each footing as a reference line for installing post anchors. Lay a long, straight 2 × 4 flat across two or three concrete footings, parallel to the ledger, with one edge tight against the J-bolts.

Draw a reference line across each concrete footing, using the edge of a 2 × 4 as a guide. Remove the 2 × 4.

Place a metal post anchor on each concrete footing, and center it over the J-bolt.

Hand-thread a nut into each J-bolt, and use a framing square to make sure the post anchor is positioned square to the reference line drawn on the footing.

Tighten each nut securely with a ratchet wrench or impact driver.

HOW TO SET POSTS

Use the elevation drawing from your design plan to find the length of each post (A). Add 6” to the length for a cutting margin.

Cut posts with a circular saw or power miter saw. Make sure factory-treated ends of posts are square. If necessary, square them by trimming with a power miter saw or circular saw.

Place the post in the anchor and tack it into place with a single 6d galvanized common nail. Do not drive the nail all the way in.

Brace the post with a 1 × 4. Place the 1 × 4 flat across the post so that it crosses the post at a 45° angle about halfway up.

Attach the brace to the post temporarily with a single 2” drywall screw.

Drive a pointed 2 × 2 stake into the ground next to the end of the brace.

Use a level to make sure the post is plumb. Adjust the post, if necessary.

Attach the brace to the stake with two 2” drywall screws.

Plumb and brace the post on the side perpendicular to the first brace.

Attach the post to the post anchor with 10d galvanized joist hanger nails. (You can also mark the post and then remove it and cut it on the ground, then nail it in place.)

Position a straight board with one end on the ledger and the other end across the face of the post. Level the board. Draw a line on the post along the bottom of the board. This line indicates the top of the joists.

From the line shown in step 11, measure down and mark the posts a distance equal to the width of the joists.

Use a square to draw a line completely around the post. This line indicates the top of the beam. From this line, repeat steps 11 and 12 to determine the bottom of the beam.

Deck beams, resting in a notch on the tops of the posts and secured with through bolts and nuts, guarantee strong connections that will bear the weight of your deck.

HOW TO MAKE A POST/BEAM CONNECTION USING A TWO-PIECE SADDLE

Fabricate the beam by face-nailing two (or three, depending on your plan) pieces of identically sized dimensional lumber. See previous page.

Measure along the beam to mark the post locations, making sure the ends of the boards of a doubled beam are flush. Mark both the near and far edges of each post onto the beam.

Use a speed square or combination square to transfer the post marks onto the top and then the opposite face of the beam, allowing you to make sure the post and post hardware align with both faces.

Cut the post to final height after securing it in place. Make two passes with a circular saw and finish with a reciprocating saw or handsaw. Take your time and try and get the cut as smooth and flat as possible.

Set both halves of the two-part post saddle on top of the cut post, spread as far apart as they can go. With a helper, lower the beam into position on the post and then slide the two halves of the saddle flush against the side of the beam.

Trace along the outside edge of each saddle half to mark their position onto the top of the post. Remove the two-part saddle and the beam.

Replace the saddle parts onto the post, aligned with the reference marks you drew. Nail each saddle half to the post by driving joist hanger nails or 8d galvanized nails through the holes in the nailing flanges. Attach saddles on each post on which the beam will bear.

Replace the beam in position and secure it to the posts by driving nails through the top nailing flanges of the saddle and into the beam.

HOW TO MAKE A POST/BEAM CONNECTION USING A ONE-PIECE SADDLE

Cut the post to final height after securing it in place. Make two passes with a circular saw and finish with a reciprocating saw.

Attach the saddle hardware to the top of the post using joist hanger screws, 10d galvanized common nails, or joist hanger nails. You must drive a fastener at every predrilled hole in the saddle hardware.

Set the beam into the saddle, making sure the sides of the saddle align with the layout marks on the beam.

Secure the beam into the saddle by driving galvanized common nails or joist hanger screws through the predrilled holes in the top half of the saddle.

HOW TO INSTALL A BEAM FOR A NOTCHED-POST DECK

Remove 6 × 6 posts from post anchors and cut to finished height. Measure and mark a notch at the top of each post, sized to fit the thickness and width of the beam. Trace the lines on all sides using a framing square.

Use a circular saw to rough-cut the notches, then switch to a reciprocating saw or hand saw to finish. Reattach posts to the post anchors, with the notch-side facing away from the deck.

With someone’s help, lift the beam (crown side up) into the notches. Align the beam and clamp it to the post. Counterbore two 1/2”-deep holes, using a 1 3/8” spade bit, then drill 1/2” pilot holes through the beam and post, using a 1/2” auger bit.

Insert carriage bolts in to each pilot hole. Add a washer and nut to the counterbore-side of each, and tighten using a ratchet. Seal both ends with silicone caulk. Apply self-sealing membrane to top surfaces of beam and posts if necessary.

Metal joist hangers attached to rim joists or ledgers are practically foolproof for hanging intermediate deck joists. Look for hanger hardware that is triple-dipped galvanized metal or stainless steel.

HOW TO HANG JOISTS

Use your deck plan to find the spacing (A) between joists, and the length of inner joists (B), outside joists (C), and rim joist (D). Measure and mark lumber for outside joists, using a combination square as a guide. Cut joists with a miter or circular saw. Seal cut ends with clear sealer-preservative.

Attach joist hanger hardware near each end of the ledger board, according to your layout. Previous building codes allowed you to face nail the joists into the ends of the ledger, but this is no longer accepted practice. Attach only enough fasteners to hold the hanger in position while you square up the joist layout.

Attach the outside joists to the top of the beam by toenailing them with 10d galvanized common nails.

Trim off the ends of structural lumber to get a clean straight edge.

Measure and cut the rim joist. Seal cut ends with clear sealer-preservative. Drill 1/8” pilot holes at each end of the rim joist. Attach the rim joist to ends of outside joists with 16d galvanized common nails. For extra reinforcement, add metal corner brackets to the inside corner joints.

Finish nailing the end joist hangers, making sure you have a joist hanger nail in every punched hole in the hanger.

Measure along the ledger from the edge of the outside joist, and mark where the joists will be attached to the ledger.

Draw the outline of each joist on the ledger, using a square as a guide.

Measure along the beam from the outside joist, and mark where joists will cross the beam. Draw the outlines across the top of both beam boards.

Measure along the header joist from the outside joist, and mark where joists will be attached to the header joist. Draw the outlines on the inside of the header, using a square as a guide. Install the joist hangers on the rim joist.

Attach joist hangers to the ledger. Position each hanger so that one of the flanges is against the joist outline. Nail one flange to framing members with 10d galvanized joist hanger nails.

Cut a scrap board to use as a spacer. Hold the spacer inside each joist hanger, then close the hanger around the spacer.

Nail the remaining side flange to the framing member with 10d joist hanger nails. Remove the spacer.

Measure and mark lumber for joists, using a combination square as a guide. Cut joists with a circular saw or power miter saw.

Seal cut ends with clear sealer-preservative. Place the joists in the hangers with crowned edge up.

Attach the ledger joist hangers to the joists with joist hanger nails. Drive nails into both sides of each joist.

Align the joists with the outlines drawn on the top of the beam. Anchor the joists to the beam by toenailing from both sides with 10d galvanized nails.

Option: End nail the joists to reinforce the connections by driving 10d galvanized nails through the rim joist and into the inner joists. If you will not be cladding the rim joists and it will be visible, use 10d galvanized finish nails.

HOW TO LAY DECKING

Position the first row of decking flush against the house. The first decking board should be perfectly straight, and should be precut to proper length. Attach the first decking board by driving a pair of 2 1/2” corrosion-resistant deck screws into each joist.

Position remaining decking boards so that ends overhang outside joists. Space boards about 1/8” apart. Attach boards to each joist with a pair of 2 1/2” deck screws driven into each joist.

If the boards are bowed, use a pry bar to maneuver them into position while fastening.

Drill 1/8” pilot holes in the ends of boards before attaching them to the outside joists. Pilot holes prevent screws from splitting decking boards at ends.

After every few rows of decking are installed, measure from the edge of the decking board to the edge of header joist. If the measurements show that the last board will not fit flush against the edge of the deck, adjust board spacing.

Adjust board spacing by changing the gaps between boards by a small amount over three or four rows of boards. Very small spacing changes will not be obvious to the eye. Tip: Although 10d common nails can be used as spacers to keep gaps even, a decking spacer tool (inset) is easier to manage.

Use a chalk line to mark the edge of the decking flush with the outside of deck. Cut off decking, using a circular saw. Set the saw blade 1/8” deeper than the thickness of the decking so that the saw will not cut the side of the deck. At areas where the circular saw cannot reach, finish the cutoff with a jigsaw or handsaw.

For a more attractive appearance, clad the exposed structural members of the deck with fascia boards. Miter cut the corners, and attach the boards with deck screws or 8d galvanized nails. Generally, it is preferable to have the decking overlap the top edges of the fascia so you are not creating a gap where debris can collect. If you are using non-wood decking, many decking manufacturers offer non-wood fascia and trim that match the color, style and texture of the decking.

COMPOSITE AND PVC DECKING

Lay composite decking as you would wood decking (pages 202 to 203). Position with the factory crown up so water will run off, and space rows 1/8” to 1/4” apart for drainage.

Predrill pilot holes at 3/4 the diameter of the fasteners, but do not countersink. Composite materials allow fasteners to set themselves. Use the fastener recommended by the manufacturer.

Alternate Method: Attach composite decking with self-tapping composite screws. These specially designed screws require no pilot holes. If the decking “mushrooms” over the screw head, use a hammer to tap the decking back in place.

Lay remaining decking. For boards 16-ft. or shorter, leave a gap at deck ends and any butt joints, 1/16” for every 20°F difference between the temperature at the time of installation and the expected high temperature for the year.

HOW TO MAKE STAIR STRINGERS

Lay out the stair stringers. Use tape to mark the rise measurement on one leg of a framing square, and the run measurement on the other leg. Beginning at one end of the stringer, position the square with tape marks flush to edge of the board, and outline the rise and run for each step. Then draw in the tread outline against the bottom of each run line. Use a circular saw to trim the ends of the stringers as shown. (When cutting the stringers for stairs without metal cleats, just cut on the solid lines.)

Attach metal tread cleats flush with the bottom of each tread outline, using 1/4” × 1 1/4” lag screws. Drill 1/8” pilot holes to prevent the screws from splitting the wood.

Attach angle brackets to the upper ends of the stringers, using 10d joist hanger nails. Brackets should be flush with the cut ends of the stringers.

HOW TO BUILD BASIC DECK STAIRS

Use the stairway elevation drawings to confirm your design, including the locations of the stair stringers and posts. Use a pencil and framing square to outline where stair stringers will be attached to the side of the deck.

Locate the post footings according to your plan. Lay a straight 2 × 4 on the deck so that it is level and square to the side of the deck. Measure out along the 2 × 4 and use a plumb bob or level to mark the ground at footing centerpoints.

Dig holes and pour the footings for posts. Attach metal post anchors to the footings and install the posts. Check with your building department to find out if 6 × 6 posts are now required. See pages 172 to 183 for more information on locating and pouring footings.

Attach the stair stringers to the deck joist that supports them, using skewable joist hangers designed for use with stair stringers. Here, a prefabricated four-step stringer cut from pressure-treated pine is shown.

Attach the bottoms of the stringer to the stair railing posts using several 3” deck screws or through-bolts.

Attach a 2 × 4 brace to the bottom ends of the stringers to help prevent racking. You’ll need to trim 1 1/2” from the bottom end of any intermediate stringers so the ends of the brace will butt against the inside faces of the outer stringers. Measure from the outside edges of the outer stringers to find the required tread length. Add an inch of overhang to each end if you wish.

Begin positioning the treads on the stringers, starting at the top. Two 5/4 × 6” decking boards or two 2 × 6 boards are just the right width to create a stair tread. The top of the tread on the top step should be flush with the decking.

Attach the stair treads with 3” deck screws. Especially when working on the outer stringers where the screws are near the ends of the board you should drill pilot holes for the screws.

Finish installing the treads, using a spacer such as a 10d common nail to maintain and check the gaps between tread boards. If your staircase has more than three steps you’re required to install a railing with a graspable handrail.

Refer to your deck design plan for spacing (A) and length of railing posts and balusters. Balusters should be placed so that there is no more than a 4” gap between adjacent balusters. Posts should be spaced no more than 6 ft. apart.

Railings are mandatory safety features for any deck that’s more than 30” above grade. There are numerous code issues and stipulations that will dictate how you build your deck railings. Consult with your local building inspector for any code clarification you may need.

TYPES OF RAILINGS

Vertical balusters are a traditional look, well suited to a range of home and deck styles, and the most common type of railing construction used on decks. The balusters can be made of wood, metal, or composite to vary the look.

Horizontal railings are often used on low, ranch-style homes. Horizontal railings are made of vertical posts, two or more wide horizontal rails, and a railing cap. There should be no more than 4” between the horizontal railings.

Lattice panels add a decorative touch to a deck. They also provide extra privacy and are the easiest railing filler to install.

HOW TO INSTALL A WOOD DECK RAILING

Measure and cut 4 × 4 posts, using a power miter saw or circular saw. Cut the tops of the posts square, and cut the bottoms at a 45° angle. Seal cut ends of lumber with clear sealer-preservative.

Measure and cut the balusters for the main deck railing, using a power miter saw or circular saw. Cut the tops of the balusters square, and cut the bottoms at a 45° angle. Seal cut ends of lumber with clear sealer-preservative.

Drill two 3/8” pilot holes spaced 2” apart through the bottom end of each post. Counterbore each pilot hole to 1/2” depth, using a 1 3/8” spade bit.

Drill two 1/8” pilot holes spaced 4” apart near the bottom end of each baluster. Drill two 1/8” pilot holes at the top of each baluster, spaced 1 1/2” apart.

Measure and mark the position of posts around the outside of the deck, using a combination square as a guide. Plan to install a post on the outside edge of each stair stringer.

Position each post with the beveled end flush with the bottom of the deck. Plumb the post with a level. Insert a screwdriver or the 3/8” drill bit into the pilot holes and mark the side of the deck.

Remove the post and drill 3/8” holes into the side of the deck.

Attach railing posts to the side of the deck with 3/8 × 4 1/2” lag screws and washers, using a ratchet wrench or impact driver. Seal the screw heads with silicone caulk.

Measure and cut 2 × 4 side rails. Position the rails with their edges flush to the tops of the posts, and attach them to the posts with 2 1/2” corrosion-resistant deck screws.

Join 2 × 4s for long rails by cutting the ends at 45° angles. Drill 1/8” pilot holes to prevent nails from splitting the end grain, and attach the rails with 10d galvanized nails. (Screws may split mitered ends.)

Attach the ends of rails to the stairway posts, flush with the edges of the posts, as shown. Drill 1/8” pilot holes, and attach the rails with 2 1/2” deck screws.

At a stairway, measure from the surface of the decking to the top of the upper stairway post (A).

Transfer measurement A to the lower stairway post, measuring from the edge of the stair stringer.

Position a 2 × 4 rail against the inside of the stairway posts. Align the rail with the top rear corner of the top post and with the pencil mark on the lower post. Have a helper attach the rail temporarily with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Mark the outline of the post and the deck rail on the back side of the stairway rail.

Mark the outline of the stairway rail on the lower stairway post.

Mark a plumb cutoff line at the bottom end of the stairway rail. Remove the rail.

Extend the pencil lines across both sides of the stairway post, using a combination square as a guide and straightedge.

Cut off the lower stairway post along the diagonal cutoff line, using a reciprocating saw or circular saw.

Use a circular saw to cut the stairway rail along the marked outlines.

Position the stairway rail flush against the top edge of the posts. Drill 1/8” pilot holes, then attach the rail to the posts with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Use a spacer block to ensure equal spacing between not to exceed 4 balusters. Beginning next to a plumb railing post, position each baluster tight against the spacer block, with the top of the baluster flush to the top of rail. Attach each baluster with 2 1/2” deck screws.

For the stairway, position the baluster against the stringer and rail, and adjust for plumb. Draw a diagonal cutoff line on top of the baluster, using the top of the stair rail ensuring that the space does not exceed 4” as a guide. Cut the baluster on the marked line, using a power miter saw. Seal the ends with clear sealer-preservative.

Beginning next to the upper stairway post, position each baluster tight against the spacer block, with the top flush to the top of the stair rail. Predrill and attach the baluster with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Position the 2 × 6 cap so that the edge is flush with the rail’s inside edge. Drill 1/8” pilot holes and attach the cap to the rail with 2 1/2” deck screws every 12”. Drive screws into each post and into every third baluster. For long caps, bevel the ends at 45°. Drill 1/16” pilot holes and nail to the post with 10d nails.

At the corners, miter the ends of the railing cap at 45°. Drill 1/8” pilot holes, and attach the cap to the post with 2 1/2” deck screws.

At the top of the stairs, cut the cap so that it is flush with the stairway rail. Drill 1/8” pilot holes and attach the cap with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Measure and cut the cap for the stairway rail. Mark the outline of the post on the side of the cap, and bevel cut the ends of the cap. Position the cap over the stairway rail and balusters so that the edge of the cap is flush with the inside edge of the rail.

Drill 1/8” pilot holes and attach the cap to the rail with 2 1/2” deck screws driven every 12”. Also drive screws through the cap into the stair post and into every third baluster.

WOOD RAILING STYLE VARIATIONS

Vertical baluster railings are a popular style because they complement most house styles. To improve the strength and appearance of the railing, the advanced variation shown here uses a “false mortise” design. The 2 × 2 balusters are mounted on 2 × 2 horizontal rails that slide into mortises notched into the posts.

Horizontal railing best visually complements ranch-style or modern houses with predominantly horizontal lines. For improved strength and a more attractive appearance, the style shown here features 1 × 4 rails set on edge into dadoes cut in the faces of the posts. A cap rail running over all posts and top rails helps unify and strengthen the railing.

Wall-style railing is framed with short 2 × 4 stud walls attached flush with the edges of the deck. The stud walls and rim joists are then covered with siding materials, usually chosen to match the siding on the house. A wall-style railing creates a more private space and visually draws the deck into the home, providing a unified appearance.

Stairway railings are required for any stairway with more than three steps. They are usually designed to match the style used on the deck railing.

HOW TO BUILD A FLOATING OCTAGON DECK

POSITION THE PIERS

Clear any large rocks or debris from the area over which the deck will be positioned. Measure and mark the locations for the pier blocks. Set out the pier blocks for the center of the deck; you’ll start by building the center “box” rectangle off of which all the other joists will be leveled.

Position the piers accurately to ensure a stable deck. They need to be the proper distance from each other and level side to side.

BUILD THE CENTER BOX

Set a 10-foot-long 2 × 6 joist on edge in the slots of the three pier blocks along one end of each row. Hold a carpenter’s level along the top of the joist as a helper raises or lowers the lowest end of the joist. With the helper holding the joist level, measure any gaps between the bottom of the joist and the pier block sockets.

Leveling a joist is a job that calls for a helper. You’ll need to focus on the precise measurements for the posts, if any.

Once the posts are cut, it’s important to check the joists for level in place. Only screw the joists down when the preliminary “box” for the frame is complete.

The first two opposite band joists complete the box.

Check diagonal measurements of the foundation center box. This must be square because the rest of the deck is built off the box. If the diagonal measurements are off at all, adjust the “box” until they match.

Complete the center of the deck frame by screwing the center joist into place, attaching it to the band joists on either end.

COMPLETE THE FRAME

Measure and set the remaining pier blocks in place on both sides of the center frame box. There should be a row of three piers and a row of two piers on each side of the center box, as shown in the Framing Plan (page 222).

Cut and position the outer floor joists in the octagon, leveling them in place as before.

Install the blocking to support the side piers. Once level, screw the outside joist to the 4 × 4 posts (if any) with the joist positioned so that the overhang on both sides is equal.

Drive 3” screws through the mitered ends to secure the band joists to one another. Use three screws per connection. Complete the outside frame by screwing diagonal band joists onto the mitered ends of the middle floor joists, and to the band joists.

Install the decking boards, allowing for overhang that will be trimmed at the end of construction.

INSTALL THE DECKING

Begin laying the decking at one edge of the octagon, so that the decking lays perpendicular to the floor joists. Place the first deck board into position with its edge aligned with the edge of the band joist. Screw down each decking board using two 3-inch deck screws per joist.

Lay the rest of the decking boards by screwing them down to the joists, maintaining a 1/8” spacing between boards.

Use a circular saw equipped with a carbide blade to make quick work of trimming the ends of the deck boards, leaving a clean edge.

Improve the look and comfort of a deck with a built-in bench. Building one is fairly easy, whether you’re retrofitting an existing deck or adding one as part of a brand-new platform.

HOW TO BUILD A DECK-MOUNTED BENCH

Cut six 15”-long legs from 4 × 4s. Cut 3 bases from the same material as the legs. Each base should be 4” long.

Place a leg on the worktable with a scrap piece underneath. Mark and drill a 1” hole, 1/2” deep, 1 1/2” up from the bottom of the leg on the outside face (use a depth gauge on a spade bit). Change to a 3/8” bit to complete the pilot hole, drilling a hole in the center of the larger hole, and through the other side of the leg.

Drill identical base holes on all the other legs. Place a base in position against the inside edges of two legs, aligned with the bottom of the legs. Stick a long thin spike, awl, or other marking device through the hole to mark the location of the pilot holes on each end of the base.

Remove the base and drill 1/4” pilot holes into the ends at the marks. Repeat with all the bases and mark each base for the legs it goes with.

Measure and cut the leg top plates. These can be pressure-treated 2 × 4s because they won’t be visible once the bench is assembled. Cut three plates 16 1/2” long. Make marks on the long edges of the plates 2 3/4” from each end.

Complete the leg assemblies by aligning the edge marks on each top plate with the outside edges of the legs, and drilling two pilot holes through the top of the plate into each leg. Attach the plates to the legs with 3” screws.

Cut three 2 × 6s, each exactly 6 ft. long, for the seat. Lay them side by side, clamped together with the ends aligned. Mark the leg positions across the boards. The end leg units should be 2” from each end. The center leg unit should be centered along the span. Note: Make attaching the legs to the decking easier and more secure by determining leg position along the deck before attaching them to the seat. Center each leg board on top of a decking board so that you can screw into the center of the board to secure the legs.

Set the leg assemblies in place, upside down on the 2 × 6s, using the marks for reference. Screw through the bottom of the top plates into the seat boards. Use two 2 1/2” decking screws per 2 × 6, for each leg unit.

Cut two 2 × 4 side frame pieces 6’3” long, and two end pieces 19 1/2” long. Miter each edge 45° and dry fit the frame around the outside of the bench seat.

Assemble the frame by attaching the end pieces to the ends of the 2 × 6s, and the side pieces to the pressure-treated top plates. Use 3” deck screws to secure the frame pieces in place. Drill pilot holes through the miters and screw the frame pieces to each other.

Position the bench on the deck. Mark the leg base locations. Remove the bench and drill pilot holes for each base, down through the base and deck board. Use a spade bit to countersink the holes. Drive 3/8” lag screws down through the bases into the deck boards. Put the bench into position and secure it to the bases using 3/8” lag bolts and washers.

For a more finished look, cut plugs from the same wood as the legs, and glue them into place to cover the lag bolt heads in the sides of the legs. Sand as necessary, and finish the bench with whatever finish you prefer.

VARIATION: HOW TO BUILD AN EDGE-MOUNTED BENCH

This project is an edge-mounted bench built by using prefab braces (See Resources, page 553) that make constructing the bench much easier. It has a canted back that allows a person to lean back and relax, and is mounted right to the band joist. We’ve built this as a double bench, with mitered boards on one side so that the benches look like a continuous unit.

Attach the first bracket centered along the band joist 6” from where the bench will end. Screw it to the decking and band joist using the 1 1/2” screws and washers provided, screwing through the holes in the bracket.

Attach the second bracket on the band joist, no more than 24” away from the first bracket. Screw two brackets to the adjacent band joist in exactly the same pattern.

Measure and mark six 2 × 6s for the seats and top caps of the benches. The boards should be same width on the inside edge as the band joist, mitered out to the wider back edge 22 1/2°, so that the members of each bench butt flush against each other.

Cut four 2 × 4 back supports 41” long. Miter the top ends 12°. Position each back support in a bracket, mark the 2 × 4 through the holes in the brackets, and drill for the mounting bolts. Attach the back supports with the 2 1/2” bolts supplied, using washers on both sides.

Position the top cap on top of the back supports, leaving a 3/4” overhang in the back. Drill pilot holes and screw the top caps to the back supports with 2 1/2” deck screws, with the mitered edges meeting on the inside corner between the two bench segments. Screw the seat boards into position the same way, driving the supplied 1” screws up through the bottom of the leg brackets, into the 2 × 6 seat boards.

Measure and miter twelve 2 × 4 back and leg boards in the same way as you did the seat and top cap boards, but with the boards on edge. Butt the top back board up underneath the top cap, so that the mitered end is positioned on the inside corner between the two bench segments. Screw it into the back supports using 2 1/2” deck screws. Attach the two remaining back boards in the same way, leaving a 2” gap between the boards.

Position the seat skirt on the front of the bench seat in the same way you positioned the seat boards. Mark and drill pilot holes, and screw the skirt to the front 2 × 6 using 2 1/2” deck screws. Screw the first leg board into position using 1” screws driven through the holes in the bracket, and screw 2 × 4 blocks as spacers.

Attach the back, seat, and leg boards on the adjacent bench section in the same way, making sure that the mitered edges leave a 1” gap between the two bench sections. Inset: Install added support behind the back boards where the adjacent benches meet using scrap blocking and deck screws.

HOW TO INSTALL DECK SKIRTING

Determine the length of the skirting sections by measuring the space between posts. Measure on center and mark the posts. At corners, measure from the outer edge of the corner post to the center of the next post in line. Determine the height of the skirting by measuring from the top of a post to grade leaving at least 1” between the skirt bottom and ground.

Snap a chalk line 1” above the bottom of the post, and use a speed square to find the angle of the slope. Cut the top and side frame sections for the skirting from 1 × 4 pressure-treated lumber. You can also use cedar or other rot- and insect-resistant material.

Cut the ends of the frame pieces to fit. Assemble the 1 × 4 frame using galvanized angle brackets.

Cut the 3/4” lattice to dimensions of the frame, using a circular saw or jigsaw. Align the lattice on the back of the 1 × 4 frame, and screw the lattice to the frame about every 10” using 3/4” galvanized screws.

Install each finished lattice skirting section as soon as it is assembled. Align the edges of the frame with the marks you’ve made on the posts and drill pilot holes through the front of the frame and lattice into the post. Screw the section to the post with 3” galvanized deck screws, using a screw at the top, bottom, and middle of the frame.

Optional: If the length between posts is greater than 8 ft., add stiles in the frame to support extra lattice panels. Cut 1 × 4 stiles to length so that they fit between the top and bottom rails. Screw it in place by using a 4” or larger T brace on the back of the frame. Then nail the lattice in place.

Once the skirting is in place, finish it to match the deck or your house. If you have access to spray equipment, you’ll find that lattice can be painted much faster with it than with a brush or roller.

WOOD

Wood is still the most commonly used material for fences and is really the only one that allows for custom designs and details. Durability, cost, and appearance have everything to do with the type and quality of wood you choose. For a painted fence and for structural members (posts and stringers) that aren’t highly visible on unpainted fences, the best and cheapest option is pressure-treated (PT) lumber. Unfinished, it doesn’t look as good as other wood types, but it’s strong and highly rot-resistant, and you can’t see it once it’s painted. Choose PT lumber rated for “ground contact” for all posts and any pieces that will be within 6 inches of the ground. Kiln-dried lumber (often labeled KDAT, for “kiln-dried after treatment”) is less likely to warp or split than surfaced-dry (S-Dry) lumber.

Always use galvanized or stainless steel hardware and fasteners when building fences.

ORNAMENTAL METAL

Sold in preassembled panels and precut posts made of steel, aluminum, or iron, ornamental metal fencing has a distinctive, formal look reminiscent of traditional wrought iron fences. Most products come prefinished with tough, weather-resistant coatings, making metal fencing one of the lowest-maintenance types you can buy. Steel and aluminum versions are lighter in weight and less expensive than iron fencing and are readily available through home centers and fencing suppliers. Iron fencing made for easy installation is available through specialty manufacturers and distributors.

CHAIN LINK

Chain link is the ultimate utility fence—durable, secure, and virtually maintenance-free. Made of rust-resistant galvanized steel, chain link fencing comes in ready-to-assemble parts and is easily worked into custom lengths and configurations. Installing chain link is a little more involved than with other types of pre-fab fencing, but the technique is pretty straightforward once you get the hang of it.

WOOD COMPOSITE

Because it’s made with wood fibers and plastic, wood composite fencing may be considered an alternative to both wood and vinyl fencing. And it’s an environmentally friendly choice to boot. Composite fencing can be made almost entirely from recycled plastic and recycled or reclaimed wood materials (not counting metal brackets and rail stiffeners). Like vinyl, it won’t rot and never needs painting. Like wood, it has a solid feel and a non-glare finish. Composite fencing come in ready-to-assemble kits and installs much like many vinyl fence products.

VINYL

Vinyl fencing is popular for its long life, minimal maintenance requirements (essentially none), and the fact that it comes in many styles based on traditional wood fence designs. As such, vinyl is generally considered an alternative to painted wood fencing. Installation of the various post-and-panel fence systems is relatively simple, provided you follow the manufacturers’ instructions carefully.

BAMBOO

Bamboo occupies its own category because it’s not wood—it’s grass—and because it has such a unique decorative quality that can turn any fence into a conversation piece. Most bamboo fences are made with preassembled panels (consisting of size-matched canes tied together with wire) set into a wood framework. You can also find materials for building an all-bamboo fence, or you can cover an existing fence with preassembled panels. Bamboo can be tooled and finished with ordinary tools and materials and is an environmentally friendly material.

FENCE & GATE HARDWARE

All metal hardware and fasteners used for building fences must be corrosion-resistant. This includes hinges, latches, and brackets, as well as screws, nails, and other fasteners. For fastener materials, choose hot-dipped galvanized or stainless steel (not aluminum) when working with pressure-treated wood; with cedar and redwood lumber, galvanized, stainless steel, and aluminum fasteners offer corrosion resistance, but only stainless steel is guaranteed not to discolor the wood.

Stone, brick, and block are timeless, sturdy fence-building materials that stand the test of time.

STONE

Natural stone is a timeless building material for walls, offering unmatched beauty and durability. Cut stone (called ashlar) is the best choice for most wall applications. Its relatively flat surfaces make it easy to stack for a strong, uniform structure. Other types of stone for building include fieldstone (naturally shaped, irregular stones gathered from fields) and rubble (lower-quality irregular stone pieces used primarily for infill in stone walls).

BRICK & CONCRETE BLOCK

Clay brick and concrete block are equally well suited to outdoor wall projects. By itself, brick is clearly the more decorative choice, while walls made of block are quicker to build (whether mortared or mortarless) and make a great foundation for decorative finishes like stucco or veneer stone.

LANDSCAPE BLOCK

Landscape blocks are manufactured concrete units that come in several different forms. All types are uniformly shaped and sized, making them exceptionally easy to work with. In addition to the familiar blocks made specifically for retaining walls, you can now buy building-type landscape blocks designed for do-it-yourself walls, columns, steps, and planters.

Building with wood fence panels is a great time-saver and allows you to create a more elaborate fence than you may be able to build from scratch.

PANEL BOARD PATTERN VARIATIONS

Louvered

Lattice Top

Staggered Board

Stockade

INSTALLING FENCE PANELS

On a sloped lot, install the panels in a step pattern, trying to keep a consistent vertical drop between panels. It is difficult to cut most preassembled panels, so try to plan the layout so only full-width panels are used.

Metal fence panel hangers make quick work of hanging panels and offer a slight amount of wiggle room if the panel is up to 1/2” narrower than the space between posts.

With some panel styles, the best tactic is to flatten the lower tab after attaching it to the post and then bend it up or down against the panel frame once the panel is in place.

Setting all of the posts in concrete at one time and then installing the panels after the concrete sets has advantages as well as disadvantages. On the plus side, this approach lets you pour all of the concrete at the same time and provides good access so you can make absolutely certain the posts are level and plumb. On the downside, if the post spacing is off even a little bit, you’ll need to trim the panel (which can be tricky) or attach a shim to the post or the panel frame (also tricky). Most panel manufacturers recommend installing the posts as you go.

HOW TO BUILD A WOOD PANEL FENCE

Lay out the fenceline, and mark the posthole locations with colored plastic (inset). Space the holes to fit the fence panels, adding the actual post width (3 1/2” for 4 × 4 posts) plus 1/4” for brackets to the panel length. Tip: For stepped fences, measure the spacing along a level line, not along the slope.

Dig the first posthole for a corner or end post using a clamshell digger or power auger. Add 6” of gravel to the hole, and tamp it flat. Set, plumb, and brace the first post with cross bracing.

Dig the second posthole using a 2 × 4 spacer to set the distance between posts (cut the spacer to the same length as the stringers on the preassembled fence panels).

Fill the first posthole with concrete or with tamped soil and gravel. Tamp the concrete with a 2 × 4 as you fill the hole. Let the concrete set.

Install the stringer brackets onto the first post using corrosion-resistant screws or nails. Shorter fences may have two brackets, while taller fences typically have three. Note: The bottom of the fence siding boards should be at least 2” above the ground when the panel is installed.

Set the first panel into the brackets. Shim underneath the free end of the panel with scrap lumber so that the stringers are level and the panel is properly aligned with the fenceline. Fasten the panel to the brackets with screws or nails.

Mark the second post for brackets. Set the post in its hole and hold it against the fence panel. Mark the positions of the panel stringers for installing the brackets. Remove the post and install the stringer brackets, as before.

Reset the second post, slipping the ends of the panel stringers into the brackets. Brace the post so it is plumb, making sure the panel remains level and is aligned with the fenceline. Fasten the brackets to the panel with screws or nails.

Anchor the second post in concrete. After the concrete sets, continue building the fence, following steps 5 to 8. Option: You can wait to fill the remaining postholes with concrete until all of the panels are in place.

Attach the post caps after trimming the posts to their finished height (use a level mason’s line to mark all of the posts at the same height). Install the gate, if applicable; see below.

HOW TO BUILD A FACE-MOUNTED PANEL FENCE

Set the posts for your project (see page 243). Since spacing is less critical for face-mounted panels than for inset panels, you can install all of the posts before adding the panels, if desired. Lay out the posts according to the panel size, leaving about 1/4” for wiggle room. Note: Spaces before end, corner, and gate posts must be smaller by half the post width, so that the end of the fence panel covers the entire post face. Set the posts in concrete.

Trim the posts to height. For level or nearly level fences, mark the desired post height on the end posts, allowing for a 2*”* min. space between the bottom edge of the panels and the ground. Stretch a mason’s string between the end/corner posts, and mark the infill posts at the string level. Cut the posts with circular saw, reciprocating saw, or handsaw.

Position the first panel. To mark the height for all of the panels, run a mason’s string between the end/corner posts to represent the top of the top panel stringers. Use a line level to make sure the line is level. Also make sure the panel will be at least 2*”* above the ground when installed. Set the first panel onto blocks so the top stringer is touching the mason’s string.

Fasten the first panel. Holding the panel in position, drill pilot holes and fasten each stringer to the post with 3 1/2” deck screws. Use two screws at each stringer end. At end, corner, and gate posts, the stringers should run all the way across the post faces.

Install the remaining panels. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to install the rest of the panels. Tip: If any posts are off layout, resulting in a stringer joint falling too close to the edge of a post, add a 24”-long brace under the butted stringer ends; the brace should have the same thickness as the stringer stock. Add post caps and other details, as desired.

Variation: Face-mounted privacy fence panels may be fastened to post faces through the panels’ vertical frame members. To use this technique, make sure the panel edges are perfectly plumb before fastening, and butt the panels tightly together (or as directed by the manufacturer).

A low picket fence adds curb appeal and a cozy sense of enclosure to a front yard or entry area without blocking views to or from the house.

PICKET FENCE STYLES

Highlighting the posts (left) gives the fence a sectional look, and the rhythm of the pickets is punctuated by the slower cadence of the posts. To create this effect, mount the stringers on edge, so the pickets are flush with—or recessed from—the front faces of the posts. Hiding the posts (right) creates an unbroken line of pickets and a somewhat less structural look overall. This effect calls for stringers installed flush with—or over the front of—the post faces.

HOW TO BUILD A PICKET FENCE

Install and trim the posts according to your plan (see pages 243 and 246). In this project, the pickets stand at 36” above grade, and the posts are 38” (without the post caps). Set the posts in concrete, and space them as desired—but no more than 96” on center.

Mark the stringer positions onto the posts. Measure down from each post top and make marks at 8 and 28 1/2” (or as desired for your design). These marks represent the top edges of the two stringer boards for each fence section.

Install the stringers. Measure between each pair of posts, and cut the 2 × 4 stringers to fit. Drill angled pilot holes, and fasten the stringers to the posts with 3 1/2” deck screws or 16d galvanized common nails; drive one fastener in the bottom and top edges of each stringer end.

Cut the pickets to length using a power miter saw. To save time, set up a stop block with the distance from the block to blade equal to the picket length. Tip: If you’re painting the fence, you can save money by cutting the pickets from 12-ft.-long boards of pressure-treated lumber. In this project, the pickets are 32” long; each board yields 4 pickets.

Shape the picket ends as desired. For straight-cut designs, use a miter saw with a stop block on the right side of the blade (the first pass cuts through the picket and the block). If the shape is symmetrical, such as this 90° point, cut off one corner, and then flip the board over and make the second cut—no measuring or adjusting is needed.

Variation: To cut pickets with decorative custom shapes, create a cardboard or hardboard template with the desired shape. Trace the shape onto each picket and make the cuts. Use a jigsaw for curved cuts. Gang several cut pieces together for final shaping with a sander.

Prime or seal all surfaces of the posts, stringers, and pickets; and then add at least one coat of finish (paint, stain, or sealer), as desired. This will help protect even the unexposed surfaces from rot.

Set up a string line to guide the picket installation. Clamp a mason’s string to two posts at the desired height for the tops of the pickets. Note: To help prevent rot and to facilitate grass trimming, plan to install the pickets at least 2” above the ground.

Install the pickets. Using a cleat spacer cut to the width of the picket gap, set each picket in place and drill even pairs of pilot holes into each stringer. Fasten the pickets with 2” deck screws. Check the first picket (and every few thereafter) for plumb with a level before piloting.

Add the post caps. Wood post caps (with or without metal cladding) offer an easy way to dress up plain posts while protecting the end grain from water. Install caps with galvanized or stainless steel finish nails, or as directed by the manufacturer. Apply the final finish coat or touch-ups to the entire fence.

A low post and board fence, like traditional picket fencing, is both decorative and functional, creating a modest enclosure without blocking views. The same basic fence made taller and with tighter board spacing becomes an attractive privacy screen or security fence.

HOW TO BUILD A CLASSIC POST & BOARD FENCE

Set the posts in concrete, following the desired spacing. Laying out the posts at 96” on center allows for efficient use of lumber. For smaller boards, such as 1 × 4s and smaller, set posts closer together for better rigidity.

Trim and shape the posts with a circular saw. For a contoured fence, measure up from the ground and mark the post height according to your plan (post height shown here is 36”). For a level fence, mark the post heights with a level string. If desired, cut a 45° chamfer on the post tops using a speed square as an edge guide to ensure straight cuts. Prime and paint (or stain and seal) the posts.

Mark the board locations by measuring down from the top of each post and making a mark representing the top edge of each board. The traditional three-board design employs even spacing between boards. Use a speed square to draw a line across the front faces of the posts at each height mark. Mark the post centers on alternate posts using a combination square or speed square and pencil. For strength, it’s best to stagger the boards so that butted end joints occur at every other post (this requires 16-ft. boards for posts set 8 ft. apart). The centerlines represent the location of each butted joint.

Install 1 × 6 boards. Measure and mark each board for length, and then cut it to size. Clamp the board to the posts, following the height and center marks. Drill pilot holes and fasten each board end with three 2 1/2” deck screws or 8d galvanized box nails. Use three fasteners where long boards pass over posts as well.

Mark for mitered butt joints at changes in elevation. To mark the miters on contoured fences, draw long centerlines onto the posts. Position an uncut board over the posts at the proper height, and then mark where the top and bottom edges meet the centerline. Connect the marks to create the cutting line, and make the cut. Note: The mating board must have the same angle for a symmetrical joint.

Variation: This charming fence style with crossed middle boards calls for a simple alteration of the classic three-board fence. To build this version, complete the installation of the posts and top and bottom boards, following the same techniques used for the classic fence. Tip: If desired, space the posts closer together for steeper cross angles. Then, mark long centerlines on the posts, and use them to mark the angled end cuts for the middle boards. When installed, the middle boards lap over each other, creating a slight bow in the center that adds interest to the overall look.

HOW TO BUILD A NOTCHED POST & BOARD FENCE

The notched-post fence presents a slight variation on the standard face-mounted fence design. Here, each run of boards is let into a notch in the posts so the boards install flush with the post faces. This design offers a cleaner look and adds strength overall to the fence. In this example, the boards are 1 × 4s so the posts are set 6 ft. on center; 1 × 6 or 2 × 6 boards would allow for wider spacing (8 ft.). Note: Because the notches must be precisely aligned between posts, the posts are set and braced before the concrete is added. Alternatively, you can complete the post installation and then mark the notches with a string and cut each one with the posts in place.

Cut and mark the posts. Cut the 4 × 4 posts to length at 66”. Clamp the posts together with their ends aligned, and mark the notches at 6, 9 1/2, 15 1/2, 19, 25, and 28 1/2” down from the top ends.

Create the notches. Make a series of parallel cuts between the notch marks using a circular saw with the blade depth set at 3/4”. Clean out the waste and smooth the bases of the notches with a chisel.

Install the posts and boards. Set the posts in their holes and brace them in place using a level string to align the notches. Secure the posts with concrete. Prefinish all fence parts. Install the 1 × 4 boards with 2” deck screws (driven through pilot holes) so their ends meet at the middle of each post.

HOW TO BUILD A CAPPED POST & BOARD FENCE

A cap rail adds a finished look to a low post and board fence. This fence design includes a 2 × 6 cap rail and an infill made of alternating 1 × 4 and 1 × 6 boards for a decorative pattern and a somewhat more enclosed feel than you get with a basic three-board fence. The cap pieces are mitered over the corner posts. Where cap boards are joined together over long runs of fence, they should meet at a scarf joint—made with opposing 30 or 45° bevels cut into the end of each board. All scarf and miter joints should occur over the center of a post.

Install and mark the posts. Set the 4 × 4 posts in concrete with 72” on-center spacing (see page 243). Trim the post tops so they are level with one another and approximately 36” above grade. Prefinish all fence parts. Use a square and pencil to mark a vertical centerline on each post where the board ends will butt together.

Install the boards. For each infill bay, cut two 1 × 4s and three 1 × 6s to length. Working from the top of the posts down, fasten the boards with 2 1/2” deck screws driven through pilot holes. Use a 1 1/2”-thick spacer (such as a 2 × 4 laid flat) to ensure even spacing between boards.

Add the cap rail. Cut the cap boards so they will install flush with the inside faces and corners of the posts; this creates a 1 1/4” overhang beyond the boards on the front side of the fence. Fasten the cap pieces to the posts with 3 1/2” deck screws driven through pilot holes.

HOW TO BUILD A MODERN POST & BOARD PRIVACY FENCE

This beautiful, modern-style post and board fence is made with pressure-treated 4 × 4 posts and clear cedar 1 × 3, 1 × 4, and 1 × 6 boards. To ensure quality and color consistency, it’s a good idea to hand-pick the lumber, and choose S4S (surfaced on four sides) for a smooth, sleek look. Alternative materials include clear redwood, ipé, and other rot-resistant species. A high-quality, UV-resistant finish is critical to preserve the wood’s natural coloring for as long as possible.

Install the posts, spacing them 60” on-center (see page 243) or as desired. Mark the tops of the posts with a level line, and trim them at 72” above grade. Note: This fence design is best suited to level ground. Cut the fence boards to length. If desired, you can rip down wider stock for custom board widths (but you’ll have to sand off any saw marks for a finished look).

Fasten the boards to the post faces using 2 1/2” deck screws or 8d galvanized box nails driven through pilot holes. Work from the top down, and use 7/8”-thick wood spacers to ensure accurate spacing.

Add the battens to cover the board ends and hide the posts. Use 1 × 4 boards for the infill posts and 1 × 6s for the corner posts. Rip 3/4” from the edge of one corner batten so the assembly is the same width on both sides. Fasten the battens to the posts with 3” stainless steel screws (other screw materials can discolor the wood).

A split rail fence looks great as a garden backdrop or a friendly boundary line. The rough-hewn texture and traditional wood joints are reminiscent of homesteaders’ fences built from lumber cut and dressed right on the property.

HOW TO BUILD A SPLIT RAIL FENCE

Determine the post spacing by dry-assembling a fence section and measuring the distance between the post centers. Be sure the posts are square to the rails before measuring.

Set up a string line using mason’s string and stakes to establish the fence’s path, including any corners and return sections. Mark each post location along the path using a nail and plastic tag.

Dig the postholes so they are twice as wide as the posts and at a depth equal to 1/3 the total post length plus 6”. Because split posts vary in size, you might want to lay out the posts beforehand and dig each hole according to the post size.

Add 6” of drainage gravel to each posthole. Tamp the gravel thoroughly with a digging bar or a 2 × 4 so the layer is flat and level.

Set and measure the first post. Drop the post in its hole, and then hold it plumb while you measure from the ground to the desired height. If necessary, add or remove gravel and re-tamp to adjust the post height.

Brace the post with cross bracing so it is plumb. Add 2” of gravel around the bottom of the post. Tamp the gravel with a digging bar or 2 × 4, being careful not to disturb the post.

Fill and tamp around the post, one layer at a time. Alternate between 4” of soil and 2” of gravel (inset), tamping each layer all the way around the post before adding the next layer. Check the post for plumb as you work. Overfill the top of the hole with soil and tamp it into a hard mound to help shed water.

Assemble the first section of fence by setting the next post in its hole and checking its height. Fit the rails into the post mortises, and then brace the second post in place. Note: Set all the posts at the same height above grade for a contoured fence. For a level fence, see Variation, right.

Variation: For a fence that remains level across the top, set up a level mason’s line strung between two installed fence posts or between temporary supports. Set all of the posts so their tops are just touching the line.

Secure the second post by filling and tamping with alternate layers of gravel and soil, as with the first post. Repeat steps 5 through 9 to complete the fence. Tip: Set up a mason’s string to help keep the posts in a straight line as you set them.

The Virginia rail fence exhibits a very familiar style to anyone who has spent much time in countryside that was cleared and farmed in the 18th and 19th centuries. Since nails were scarce, these zig-zagging post and rail fences were popular because they are held together with only wire or rope.

HOW TO BUILD A VIRGINIA RAIL FENCE

Plan the layout of your fence by setting down three or four sections formed with single rails without posts. Set the rails over a mason’s string, rope, or garden hose that represents the fenceline running down the middle of the fence. Experiment with different angles of zigzag: more acute angles create a more stable fence over rolling contours, but this requires more lumber and takes up more space. Also determine how much overlap you want at the rail ends. When you are satisfied with your layout, use a board spanning across the open side of a fence section to measure the overall width, or path, of the fence.

Mark the fenceline with stakes and mason’s string. This will become the center of the fence’s path. Then, using the measurements taken from your layout, mark the ground on either side of the fenceline to represent the outer edges of the fence path. Use marking paint or mason’s strings to mark the edges.

Locate the posthole centers to coincide with the crossing points of the rails. To keep the posts in line, plot the postholes along additional mason’s strings representing the distance from the fenceline to the rail crossing points. Make sure that the posts alternate from side to side with even spacing throughout the fence run.

Dig the first pair of postholes using a clamshell digger. Make the holes about three times the width of one post and 18 to 24” deep. Because of the fence’s inherent flexibility, the posts don’t need to extend below the frost line.

Place two posts in each hole, leaving enough room for a rail to pass in between them. Hold the posts plumb, and backfill the holes with soil, compacting it moderately to allow for some movement of the posts, if necessary.

Thread a rail through the post pairs, propping it up near the ends with rocks or landscape blocks. Cinch the top ends of the posts together with clothesline or rope to keep them parallel. The rail should extend past the posts an equal distance at both ends.

Continue building the fence in the same fashion. Remember to alternate the rail placement to keep the rails roughly level. You can use chunks of scrap wood from the rail or post material as spacers to help level uneven rails, if desired.

Bind the post pairs with wire once the fence sections are complete. Wrap 9-gauge galvanized wire a couple of times around the post, directly above the top-most rail. Twist the wire ends together a couple of times, leaving longish tails after the twist.

Tighten the wire with a screwdriver. Twist the wire tails around the shaft of a large screwdriver a few times, and then rotate the screwdriver in a circle (as if you’re applying a tourniquet) until the wire is tight and begins to bite into the posts. Trim the wire tails and twist them under or drive them into the wood for safety.

Drive the posts in further, if necessary, to stiffen up the post and rail junctures. Protect the tops of the post with a wood block. You can also tamp around the posts with a digging bar to stabilize them. If necessary, trim the post tops of each pair so they are even.

Composite fencing is manufactured with a blend of wood fibers and plastic resins. It is denser than vinyl fencing and available in a wide range of colors and textures; some even replicate the look of real wood. The privacy fence above is from the Seclusions line by Trex.

The composite fence system shown in this project is supported by hollow composite posts set in concrete. Bottom stringers include aluminum channels (for strength) clad with composite sleeves. The siding infill is made up of interlocking pieces (or pickets) that fit into the bottom stringer channels and are covered with a top rail. The bottom stringer and top rail are anchored to the posts with brackets.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT A WOOD COMPOSITE FENCE

Dig the postholes according to your fence layout. Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s directions for post spacing. Dig the holes 12” in diameter and 30” deep (or as directed). Add 6” of gravel to each hole and tamp it flat.

Set the posts in concrete using a layout string to ensure precise alignment of the post faces (see page 243). Brace each post with cross bracing so it is perfectly plumb. Fill around the post with concrete, up to 2” below ground level. Tamp the concrete with a 2 × 4 to eliminate air pockets. Let the concrete cure for 24 to 48 hours.

Install the post brackets with the provided screws, using the manufacturer’s template (inset) to center the brackets on the post faces. Install the bottom bracket onto each post first, measure up from the bracket and mark the position of the top bracket, and then install the top bracket.

Assemble each bottom stringer by sliding the composite cladding pieces over the sides of the aluminum stringer channel. For short fence sections, see step 5.

Cut a stringer as needed for short sections of fence. Cut the aluminum channel with a hacksaw. Trim the composite cladding pieces to match the channel with a circular saw and carbide-tipped wood blade.

Set the stringer onto the bottom post brackets. Check the stringer with a level. If necessary, remove the stringer and adjust the bracket heights (you may have to adjust top brackets as well to maintain the proper spacing).

Fasten the stringer ends to the post brackets using the provided screws.

Trim the upper outside corner of the first picket so it will clear the top post bracket using a circular saw and carbide-tipped wood blade.

Install the first picket by slipping its bottom end into the stringer channel. Align the picket to the top post bracket, and fasten the picket to the post with three evenly spaced screws.

Assemble the fence panel by fitting the pickets together along their interlocking side edges and sliding their bottom ends into the stringer channel.

Fit the last picket into place after trimming its top corner to clear the post bracket, as you did with the first panel. Fasten the picket to the post with three screws, as in step 9.

Set the top rail over the ends of the pickets until the rail meets the top post brackets.

Secure the top rail to each top post bracket, using the provided screws, driving the screws through the top of the rail and into the bracket.

Add the post caps, securing them to the posts with galvanized finish nails or an approved adhesive. Tip: Some fence manufacturers offer more than one cap style (inset).

Vinyl fencing is now available in a wide range of traditional designs, including picket, post and board, open rail, and solid panel. Color options are generally limited to various shades of white, tan, and gray.

HOW TO INSTALL A VINYL PANEL FENCE

Lay out the first run of fence with stakes and mason’s string. Position the string so it represents the outside or inside faces of the posts (you’ll use layout strings to align the posts throughout the installation). Mark the center of the first post hole by measuring in from the string half the post width.

Dig the first posthole, following the manufacturer’s requirements for diameter and depth (improper hole dimensions can void the warranty). Add 4 to 6” (or as directed) of pea gravel to the bottom of the hole and tamp it down so it is flat and level using a 2 × 4 or 4 × 4.

Attach the fence panel brackets to the first post using the provided screws. Dry-fit a fence panel into the brackets, then measure from the top of the post to the bottom edge of the panel. Add 2” (or as directed) to represent the distance between the fence and the ground; the total dimension is the posts’ height above the ground.

Set up a post-top string to guide the post installation. Using the post height dimension, tie a mason’s string between temporary 2 × 4 supports so the string is centered over the post locations. Use a line level to make sure the string is level. Measure from the string to the ground in several places to make sure the height is suitable along the entire fence run.

Set the first post. Drop the post in its hole and align it with the fenceline string and height string. Install cross bracing to hold the post perfectly plumb. Tip: Secure bracing boards to the post with spring-type clamps or duct tape. Fill the posthole with concrete and let it set completely.

Determine the second post’s location by fitting a fence panel into the brackets on the first post. Mark the ground at the free edge of the panel. Measure out from the mark half the post width to find the center of the post hole (accounting for any additional room needed for the panel brackets.)

Complete the fence section. Dig the hole for the second post, add gravel, and tamp as before. Attach the panel brackets to the second post, set the post in place and check its height against the string line. Assemble the fence section with the provided screws (inset). Confirm that the fence panel is level. Brace the second post in place (as shown) and anchor it with concrete. Repeat the same layout and construction steps to build the remaining fence sections.

Add the post caps. Depending on the product, caps may be installed with PVC cement or screws, or they may be fitted without fasteners. Add any additional decorative accessories, such as screw caps, to complete the installation.

INSTALLING A VINYL FENCE GATE

Hang the gate using the provided hardware. Fasten the hinges to the gate panel with screws. Position the gate in line with the infill fence panels, and screw the hinges to the hinge post. Install the latch hardware onto the gate and latch post. Close the gate, position the gate stops against the gate rails, and fasten the stops to the latch post with screws.

Ornamental steel, aluminum, and iron fences come in prefabricated panels up to 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. in length, with matching posts and optional decorative details. The most common color option is black (the better to mimic the look of wrought iron), but some products come in white, bronze, and other colors.

HOW TO INSTALL AN ORNAMENTAL METAL FENCE

Lay out the fenceline with stakes and mason’s string. Start at the corners, driving stakes a few feet beyond the actual corner so that the strings intersect at 90° (as applicable). Mark the approximate post locations onto the strings using tape or a marker.

Mark the first post location with ground-marking spray paint. Assemble the panel onto the first post and align it in the corner with the mason’s strings.

Dig the first posthole, following the manufacturer’s specifications for depth and diameter. Shovel drainage gravel into the hole, and tamp it with a 2 × 4 or 4 × 4. Set the post in the hole and measure its height above the ground. If necessary, add or remove gravel until the post top is at the recommended height.

Plumb and anchor the first post. Position the post perfectly plumb using a post level. Brace the post with cross bracing. Use clamps to secure the bracing to the post. Fill the hole with concrete and let it set.

Drill pilot holes for the brackets into the second post and first panel. Align the fence assembly with the first post and mark for the second post hole. Prepare the post hole as you did in step 3.

Fill the second posthole with concrete and let it set. Here, we have a temporary brace to hold the post plumb and at the desired height. The first panel, complete with posts on either sides, is now set. Remaining posts along this fenceline can be set by positioning posts with spacers to save time (see tip on this page).

Align the second panel on the other side of the corner post. Follow instructions in steps 2 through 5 to set the post and install the panel. Repeat the same process to install the remaining fence sections. You can save time by positioning the posts with spacers (see tip on this page).

Variation: For brick pillar corners, columns, or the side of a house, install manufacturer-provided wall brackets. If wall brackets do not come with the standard installation package of your metal fence, contact the manufacturer.

HOW TO CUT METAL

Measure and mark panels for cuts. Hold the panel up to the final post in the run and mark the cutting line. Often, designs will not accommodate full panels around the entire fence perimeter.

Cut panels to the appropriate length using a hacksaw, as needed.

Chain link fencing is a strong, durable, and inexpensive way to create a barrier, increase your property’s security, or keep pets safely inside.

Fittings are designed to accommodate slight alignment and height differences between terminal posts and line posts. Tension bands, which hold the mesh to the terminal posts, have one flat side to keep the mesh flush along the outside of the fence line. The stringer ends hold the top stringer in place and keep it aligned. Loop caps on the line posts position the top stringer to brace the mesh.

HOW TO INSTALL A CHAIN LINK FENCE

Install the posts. Lay out the fenceline, spacing the posts at 96” on-center (see page 243 for laying out and setting posts). Dig holes for terminal posts 8” in diameter with flared bottoms; dig holes for line posts at 6”. Make all postholes 30” deep or below the frost line, whichever is deeper. Set the terminal posts in concrete so they extend 50” above grade. Run a mason’s string between terminal posts at 46” above grade. Set the line posts in concrete so their tops are even with the string. If desired, stop the concrete 3” below ground level and backfill with soil and grass to conceal the concrete. Tip: When plumbing and bracing posts, use duct tape to secure cross bracing to the posts.

Position the tension bands and stringer ends on the gate and end terminal posts, using a ratchet wrench to tighten the bands with the included bolt and nut. Each post gets three tension bands: 8” from the top, 24” from the top, and 8” above the ground (plus a fourth band at the bottom of the post if you will use a tension wire). Make sure the flat side of each band faces the outside of the fence and points into the fence bay. Also add a stringer end to each post, 3” down from the top.

Add bands and ends to the corner posts. Each corner post gets six tension bands, two at each location: 8” and 24” from the top and 8” from the bottom (plus two more at the bottom for a tension wire, if applicable). Also install two stringer ends, 3” from the top of the post. Orient the angled side up on the lower stringer end and the angled side down on the upper stringer end.

Top each terminal post with a post cap and each line post with a loop cap. Make sure the loop cap openings are perpendicular to the fenceline, with the offset side facing the outside of the fenceline.

Begin installing the stringer, starting at a terminal post. Feed the non-tapered end of a stringer section through the loop cap on the nearest line post, then into the stringer end on the terminal post. Make sure it’s snug in the stringer end cup. Continue feeding stringer sections through loop caps, and join stringer sections together by fitting the non-tapered ends over the tapered ends. If necessary, use a sleeve to join two non-tapered ends.

Measure and cut the last stringer section to fit to complete the stringer installation. Measure from where the taper begins on the preceding section to the end of the stringer end cup. Cut the stringer to length with a hacksaw or pipe cutter. Install the stringer.

Secure the chain link mesh to a terminal post, using a tension bar threaded through the end row of the mesh. Anchor the bar to the tension bands so the mesh extends about 1” above the stringer. The nuts on the tension bands should face inside the fence. If applicable, install a tension wire as directed by the manufacturer. Unroll the mesh to the next terminal post, pulling it taut as you go.

Stretch the mesh toward the terminal post using the come-along. Thread a spread bar through the mesh about 48” from the end, and attach the come-along between the bar and terminal post. Pull the mesh until it’s difficult to squeeze the links together by hand. Insert a tension bar through the mesh and secure the bar to the tension bands. Remove excess mesh by unwinding a strand. Tie the mesh to the stringer and line posts every 12” using tie wire. See page 282 to install a gate.

HOW TO INSTALL A CHAIN LINK GATE

Set fence posts in concrete spaced far enough apart to allow for the width of the gate plus required clearance for the latch. Position the female hinges on the gate frame, as far apart as possible. Secure with nuts and bolts (orient nuts toward the inside of the fence).

Set the gate on the ground in the gate opening, next to the gatepost. Mark the positions of the female hinges onto the gate post. Remove the gate and measure up 2” from each hinge mark on the gatepost. Make new reference marks for the male hinges.

Secure the bottom male hinge to the gatepost with nuts and bolts. Slide the gate onto the bottom hinge. Then, lock the gate in with the downward-facing top hinge.

Test the swing of the gate and adjust the hinge locations and orientations, if needed, until the gate operates smoothly and the opposite side of the gate frame is parallel to the other fence post. Tighten the hinge nuts securely.

Attach the gate latch to the free side of the gate frame, near the top of the frame. Test to make sure the latch and gate function correctly. If you need to relocate a post because the opening is too large or too small, choose the latch post, not the gate post.

HOW TO BUILD A CALIFORNIA-STYLE CHAIN LINK FENCE

Install the posts. Set the 4 × 4 fence posts in concrete, spacing them at 6 to 8 ft. on center. The posts should stand at least 4” taller than the finished height of the chain link mesh. See page 243 for help with laying out your fenceline and installing the posts.

Trim the posts so they are 4” higher than the installed height of the chain link mesh. Mark the post height on all four sides of each post, and make the cuts with a circular saw, reciprocating saw, or handsaw.

Add 2 × 4 top stringers between each pair of posts. Mark reference lines 4” down from the tops of the posts. Cut each stringer to fit snugly between the posts. Fasten the stringers with their top faces on the lines using 3” deck screws or 16d galvanized common nails driven through angled pilot holes.

Wrap tension wire around a terminal post, about 1” above the ground. Staple the wire with a galvanized fence staple, and then double back the tail of the wire and staple it to the post.

Staple the tension wire to the line posts after gently tightening the wire (using a come-along with a wire grip) and securing the loose end of the wire to the opposing terminal post. Option: You can install 2 × 4 bottom stringers in place of a tension wire.

Add finials or decorative caps to the post tops for a finished look and to help protect the end grain of the wood.

Secure the fence mesh to the first terminal post using a tension bar threaded through the end row of the mesh. Fasten the bar to the posts with a fence staple every 8”. Make sure the bar is plumb and the top of the mesh overlaps the top stringer (and bottom stringer, if applicable).

Unroll the mesh toward the other terminal post, and then stretch the mesh gently with a come-along (see step 8, page 281). Secure the end of the mesh to the post with a tension bar and staples, as before. Remove any excess mesh by unwinding a strand (see page 281).

Attach the bottom edge of the mesh to the tension wire every 2 ft., using hog rings tightened with hog ring pliers. Staple the mesh to the stringers every 2 ft. and to the line posts every 12”.

Quality bamboo for fencing isn’t hard to find, but you can’t pick it up at your local lumberyard. The best place to start shopping is the internet (see Resources, page 553). Look for well-established suppliers who are committed to sustainable practices. Most suppliers can ship product directly to your home.

HOW TO BUILD A WOOD-FRAME BAMBOO FENCE

Install and trim the 4 × 4 posts according to the size of your bamboo panels, setting the posts in concrete (see page 243). For the 6 × 8-ft. panels in this project, the posts are spaced 100” on-center and are trimmed at 75” tall (refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations).

Install the top 2 × 4 stringers. Cut each stringer to fit snugly between the posts. Position the stringer on edge so it is flush with the tops of the posts and with the back or front faces of the posts. Fasten the stringer with 3” deck screws driven through angled pilot holes. Use one screw on each edge and one on the inside face of the stringer, at both ends.

Mark the location of each bottom stringer. The span between the top of the top stringer and bottom of the bottom stringer should equal the bamboo panel height plus about 1”. Cut and install the bottom stringers in the same fashion as the top stringers. Here, the bottom stringer will be installed 2” above the ground for rot prevention. Unroll the bamboo panels.

Flatten the bamboo panels over the inside faces of the stringers. Make sure the panels fit the frames on all sides. Using a countersink-piloting bit (inset), drill a slightly countersunk pilot hole through a bamboo cane and into the stringer at a top corner of the panel. Fasten the corner with a 2” deck screw, being careful not to overtighten and split the bamboo.

Fasten the rest of the panel with screws spaced 12” apart. Stagger the screws top and bottom, and drive them in an alternating pattern, working from one side to the other. Repeat steps 4 and 5 to install the remaining bamboo panels.

Cover the top and bottom ends of the panels with 1 × 4 battens. These finish off the panels and give the fence a similar look on both sides. Cut the battens so the ends are flush against the inside faces of the posts and fasten them to the panels and stringers with 2 1/2” deck screws driven through pilot holes.

Add the top cap. Center the 2 × 6 top cap boards over the posts so they overhang about 1” on either side. Fasten the caps to the posts and stringers with 3” deck screws. Use miter joints for corners, and use scarf joints (cut with opposing 30° or 45° bevels) to join cap boards over long runs.

HOW TO COVER AN OLD FENCE WITH BAMBOO

Unroll and position a bamboo panel over one or both sides of the existing fence. Check the panel with a level and adjust as needed. For rot prevention, hold the panel 1 to 2” above the ground. Tip: A 2 × 4 laid flat on the ground makes it easy to prop up and level the panel.

Fasten the panel with deck screws driven through the bamboo canes (and fence siding boards, if applicable) and into the fence stringers. Drill countersunk pilot holes for the screws, being careful not to overtighten and crack the bamboo. Space the screws 12” apart, and stagger them top and bottom (see page 288).

Install the remaining bamboo panels, butting the edges together between panels for a seamless appearance. If the fence posts project above the stringer boards, you can cut the bamboo panels flush with the posts. To trim the panels, follow the technique shown in the Tip on page 288.

Variation: To dress up a chain link fence with bamboo fencing, simply unroll the panels over the fence and secure them every 12” or so with short lengths of galvanized steel wire. Tie the wire around the canes or the panel wiring and over the chain link mesh.

A properly trained pet will stay within the invisible boundary, as long as the animal wears the collar that is part of the invisible fence system.

Invisible pet fence systems are available in complete kits and can be installed in a day. The basic components for installation (photo above) include from left to right: a transmitter and power cord (A), installation manual or disc (B), boundary wire (C), boundary flags (D), and receiver collar (E).

BOUNDARY LAYOUT OPTIONS

A perimeter layout uses a single run of wire encircling the house and grounds. A single section of twisted wire runs from the boundary to the transmitter. Note: Twisting the boundary wire around itself cancels the signal, creating a “free passage” area for your pet.

Protecting areas within a perimeter boundary is achieved by looping the wire around the area and returning to the boundary. Twisting the wire between the boundary and protected inner area allow for free passage around the protected area.

A front or back-only layout requires a doubled loop of wire to complete the boundary circuit. Starting at the transmitter, the wire encircles the containment area and then doubles back, maintaining a 3- to 5-ft. space (or as directed) between runs to prevent canceling the signal.

Incorporating a fence into the boundary can help deter your dog from jumping over or digging under the fence. The wire can be fastened directly to the fence and/or can be buried in front of the fence. Burial allows you to protect gate openings. Run wires from the transmitter to A, A to B, B to C, C to D, D to E, E to A, and then twist wire from A to transmitter.

HOW TO INSTALL AN INVISIBLE DOG FENCE

Plan the layout of the boundary wire. With a helper, use a 100-ft. tape measure to determine the total distance of the wire run. Factor in extra length for twisted (free passage) sections and for making adjustments. Order additional wiring, if necessary. Tip: Use the boundary flags that come with the kit to temporarily mark the corners and other points of the wire route.

Mount the transmitter on the inside of an exterior wall, near a standard 120-volt receptacle. The location can be in the house, garage, basement, or crawlspace and must be convenient, protected from the elements, not subject to freezing temperatures, and must be at least 3 ft. (or as recommended) from appliances or other large metal objects. Mount the transmitter with appropriate screws.

Drill a hole through the wall for routing the boundary wire. The hole can be just large enough to fit the wire (which will likely be twisted at this point; see step 5). Alternatively, you can route the wire through a window, door, or crawlspace/basement-wall vent, provided the wire will be safe from damage. Identify stud and wire locations before you drill but shut off electrical power to be safe.

Begin running the wire along the planned route. Be sure to leave extra wire for twisting at the termination point of the boundary (transmitter location), if applicable. Turn corners with the wire gradually, not at sharp angles.

Twist the wire onto itself to cancel the signal for free passage areas, as desired. With a helper holding the wire at the end of a loop (start of twisted section), circle the spool around the wire to create 10 to 12 twists per linear foot (or as recommended). Be sure not to exceed the maximum length of twisted wire.

Splice together multiple boundary wires (required only when the boundary distance exceeds the length of wire provided with kit). Strip 1/2” of insulation from the ends of both wires using a wire stripper. Hold the ends together and join them with a wire nut, twisting the nut on tightly. Tug on the wires to make sure they’re held by the nut.

Seal inside and around the wire nut with silicone caulk to create a waterproof connection and prevent corrosion. When the caulk has dried completely, reinforce the connection with electrical tape. Tip: Make note of each splice location, as these are the most common points of boundary wire failure.

Fish the ends of the boundary wire through the house wall (termination of the boundary run) using a straightened coat hanger. Wrap the wire ends around the fish tape bend and secure them with electrical tape. Once through the wall, twist the wires to provide free passage from the house to the boundary line, as appropriate for your layout.

Connect the wire ends to the transmitter after stripping 1/2” of insulation from each end. Secure the wires to the appropriate terminals on the transmitter. Plug in the transmitter and set the boundary controls for testing the system, as directed.

Test the system using the receiver collar and testing tool. Adjust the collar settings as directed. Walk toward the boundary wire while holding the collar at the pet’s neck height. Note when the warning and correction signals are activated, indicated by the testing tool. Test the system in multiple locations. Make adjustments to the settings and/or boundary wire as needed.

Excavate grass or soil, making a continuous cut 1 to 3” deep. Drive a spade into the ground, then rock the handle back and forth to widen the cut slightly, creating a straight or gently curving slot.

Lay the boundary wire into the slot, using a paint stir-stick to seat it into the bottom of the slot. Be careful not to kink or damage the wire. Carefully close the slot by stepping along its length with one foot on either side of the slot.

Cut slots into concrete or asphalt driveways and walks using a circular saw with a masonry blade. Vacuum the slot clean, and then lay the boundary wire into the slot. Seal over the slot with high-quality concrete or asphalt caulk or patching compound.

Option: Use existing control joints to pass the boundary wire over concrete drives and walks. Control joints are the shallow grooves formed in the concrete to help control cracking. Clean and vacuum the joint, then lay in the wire. Cover the joint with concrete caulk.

Fasten the boundary wire to fences, as directed by the manufacturer. Use staples for wood fences and plastic zip ties for metal fences (or simply weave the wire through chain link mesh). To protect gate openings, bury the wire in the ground in front of the opening.

Position the boundary flags using the collar to find the inside edge of the warning zone. Move toward the boundary until the collar beeps (warning signal) and place a flag at that location. Place a flag every 10 ft. (or as directed) over the entire boundary area. Fit the collar to your pet as directed to begin the training. After training period, remove flags (follow manufacturer instructions).

Landscape block for freestanding walls is versatile and an easy material with which to build. You can use it to create low walls of almost any shape, plus columns, steps, and other features. Quality block manufacturers offer a variety of styles and textures, along with compatible specialty and accessory pieces for a well-integrated look.

LAYING OUT FREESTANDING BLOCK WALLS

Draw the rough outline of the wall onto the ground with a can of marking paint. First measure the wall blocks and/or align a few blocks in place as guides. To mark end columns, first measure the blocks and then use the marking paint to outline the footprint of the column (inset).

Freeform curving walls: Use heavy rope or a garden hose to lay out the wall’s shape. Follow the rope with marking paint to transfer the outline to the ground. To mark the other side of the wall and the edges of the excavation, reposition the rope or hose the appropriate distance away from the first mark and trace with paint.

Straight walls: Mark the outlines of the wall and/or excavation with stakes and mason’s string. Position one string, then measure from it to position any remaining strings as needed. Tip: Leave the stakes marking one of the wall faces in the ground; you’ll use them later to align the wall block.

HOW TO BUILD A FREESTANDING PATIO WALL

Remove the sod and other plantings inside the excavation area. For a gravel base, the excavation should extend 6” beyond the wall on all sides. If you are building adjacent to a sandset patio with pavers, take care not to disturb the rigid paver edging. Alternatively, fully excavate the ground around patio to compensate for wall addition and install new edging around perimeter. Follow your manufacturer’s instructions.

Set up level lines to guide the excavation using stakes and mason’s string. For curved walls, you may need more than one string. Level the string with a line level (make sure multiple strings are level with one another). Measure from the string to ground level (grade), and then add 12” (or as directed by the block manufacturer)—this is the total depth required for the excavation.

Use a story pole to measure the depth as you complete the excavation. To make a story pole, mark the finished depth of the excavation onto a straight board, and use it to measure against the string; this is easier than pulling out your tape measure for each measurement.

Tamp the soil in the trench with a rented plate compactor or a hand tamp. The bottom of the trench should be flat and level, with the soil thoroughly compacted. Take care not to disturb or damage adjacent structures.

Spread compactable gravel over the trench in an even 2- to 3”-thick layer. Tamp the gravel thoroughly. Add the remaining gravel and tamp to create a 6”-thick layer after compaction.

Check the gravel base with a level (or a level taped to a straight board) to make sure the surface is uniform and perfectly level. Add gravel to any low spots and tamp again.

Set the first course. If you’re using more than one thickness of block, select only the thicker units for the first course. Lay out the blocks in the desired pattern along the layout line, butting the ends together for complete contact. If necessary, cut blocks to create the desired curve (see step 10). Place a 4-ft. level across the blocks to make sure they are level and flat across the tops.

Set the second course. Begin the course at the more visible end of the wall. Set the blocks in the desired pattern, making sure to overlap the block joints in the first course to create a bond pattern. Alternate different sizes of block regularly, and check the entire course with a level. If necessary, cut a block for the end of the wall.

End each course with a piece no narrower than 6”. If necessary, position a full unit at the end of the wall, then measure back and cut the second-to-last unit to fit the space. Glue small end pieces in place with concrete adhesive.

Cut blocks using a brickset or pitching chisel and a maul. First score along the cutting line all the way around the block, and then chisel at the line until the block splits. You can also cut a deep score line (on thick block) or cut completely through (on thin block) using a circular saw with a masonry blade.

Complete the remaining courses, following the desired pattern. Be sure to maintain a bond with the course below by overlapping the joints in the lower course. For the top two courses, glue each block in place with concrete adhesive.

Install the cap blocks. Trapezoidal cap block may fit your wall’s curve well enough without cuts (for gentle curves, try alternating the cap positions). If cuts are necessary, dry-fit the pieces along the wall, and plan to cut every other block on both side edges for an even fit. Set all caps with concrete adhesive. Backfill along the wall to bury most or all of the first course.

HOW TO ADD DECORATIVE COLUMNS TO A WALL

Set the first course of each column after completing the first wall course (middle-of-wall columns are set along with each wall course). Use four full blocks for the first course, butting the column blocks against the end wall block. Check the column blocks for level. Note: Prepare the ground as seen on pages 298 to 299.

Glue the second course and all subsequent courses in place with concrete adhesive or according to the manufacturer’s specifications.

Cap the column with special cap units, or create your own caps with squares of flagstone. Glue cap pieces in place with concrete adhesive or mortar in between them, following the manufacturer’s instructions. Tip: The hollow space in the column’s center is ideal for running wiring for adding a light fixture on top of a cap.

This all-masonry outdoor kitchen comes ready to assemble on any solid patio surface, or you can build it over a prepared gravel base anywhere in your landscape (check with the manufacturer for base requirements). For a custom design, similar materials are available to purchase separately and the installation would be more or less the same as shown here. Discuss the project with the manufacturer for specifics. If you decide to build just a part of this kitchen (the bar, for example), review the setup and site prep steps at the beginning of this project.

HOW TO BUILD THE OUTDOOR KITCHEN

Dry-lay the project on the installation surface. This overview of the first course of blocks shows how the kitchen is constructed with five columns and two wall sections. Laying out the first course carefully and making sure the wall sections are square ensures the rest of the project will go smoothly.

Create squared reference lines for the kitchen walls after you remove the dry-laid blocks. Snap a chalk line representing the outside face of the front wall. Mark the point where the side wall will meet the front wall. Place a framing square at the mark and trace a perpendicular line along the leg of the square. Snap a chalk line along the pencil line to represent the side wall, or use the edge of a patio as this boundary (as shown). To confirm that the lines are square, mark the front-wall line 36” from the corner and the side-wall line 48” from the corner. The distance between the marks should be 60”. If not, re-snap one of the chalk lines until the measurements work out.

Begin laying the first course of block. Starting in the 90° corner of the chalk lines, set four blocks at right angles to begin the corner column. Make sure all blocks are placed together tightly. Set the long wall with blocks laid end to end, followed by another column.

Finish laying the first course, including two more columns, starting at the side wall. Use a straight board as a guide to make sure the columns form a straight line. To check for square, measure between the long wall and the short wall at both ends; the measurements should be equal. Adjust the short-wall columns as needed.

Set the second course. Add the second course of blocks to each of the columns, rotating the pattern 90° to the first course. Set the blocks for the long and side walls, leaving about a 2” gap in between the corner column and the first block. Set the remaining wall blocks with the same gap so the blocks overlap the joints in the first course.

Set the third course. Lay the third-course blocks using the same pattern as in the first course. For appearance and stability, make sure the faces of the blocks are flush with one another and that the walls and columns are plumb. Use a level to align the blocks and check for plumb.

Install the remaining courses. The higher courses of wall block are glued in place. Set the courses in alternating patterns, as before, gluing each block in place with concrete adhesive.

Build the short wall overhang. Starting at one end of the short wall, glue wall blocks along the tops of the columns with concrete adhesive. Position blocks perpendicular to the length of the short wall, overhanging the columns by 3”.

Complete the short wall top. Create the counter surface for the short wall by gluing patio stones to the tops of the columns and overhanging blocks. Position the stones for the lower surface against the ends of the overhanging blocks. Position the upper-surface stones so they extend beyond the overhanging blocks slightly on the outside ends and a little more so on the inside ends.

Cap the corner columns. Finish the two corner columns with wall blocks running parallel to the side wall. Glue the cap pieces in place on the columns using concrete adhesive. Make sure the blocks are fitted tightly together.

A dry stone wall is one of the oldest and strongest styles of garden wall out there. The wall’s two stacks of stones rely on one another for support.

HOW TO BUILD A DRY STONE WALL

Lay out the wall site with stakes and mason’s string. Dig a 24”-wide trench that is 6” deep at the edges and 8” deep in the center, creating a slight V shape by evenly sloping the sides toward the center. Compact any loose soil. Add a 2”-layer of gravel, but do not compact it.

Lay two rows of shaping stones along the bottom of the trench. Position them flush with the edges of the trench and sloping toward the center, staggering joints. Use stones similar in height. If stones have uneven surfaces, position them with the uneven sides facing down.

Form a corner by laying the last stone of the outer row so it covers the end of the stone in the outer row of the adjacent wall course. Lay the inner row in the same manner.

Lay the second course and fill any significant gaps between the shaping stones with rubble and filler stones.

Lay the stones for the second course corner so they cover the joints of the first course corner. Form corners using the same steps as for forming the first course corner. Use stones that have long, square sides. Place tie stones across the width of each wall just before the corner. Build the wall ends in this same way. Use stones of varying lengths so that each joint is covered by the stone above it. Wedge filler stones into any large gaps.

Lay the third course. Work from the corner to the end of the wall. If necessary, shape or split the final stones of the course to size with a masonry saw or hand sledge and chisel. Place tie stones approximately every 36”. Lay shaping stones between the tie stones. Make sure to stagger the joints; stones of varying lengths will help offset them. Continue to place filler stones into any cracks on the surface or sides of the wall. Continue laying courses, maintaining a consistent height along the wall and adding tie stones to every third course. Check for level as you go.

When the wall is about 36” high, check for level. Trowel mortar onto the center of the wall, in at least 6” from the edges. Center the capstones and set them as close together as possible. Carefully fill the cracks between the capstones with mortar. Let any excess mortar dry until crumbly, then brush it off. After two or three days, scrub off any residue using water and a rough-textured rag.

Interlocking concrete block is the only retaining wall material that comes ready to install. With little or no cutting, you can build a wall with straight lines, curves, or steps, or have it conform to a slope on one or both ends.

OPTIONS FOR POSITIONING A RETAINING WALL

Structural features for all retaining walls include: a compactable gravel subbase to make a solid footing for the wall, crushed stone backfill, a perforated drain pipe to improve drainage behind the wall, and landscape fabric to keep the loose soil from washing into and clogging the gravel backfill. There are a couple different ways you can position a retaining wall on your slope:

(A) Increase the level area above the wall by positioning the wall well forward from the top of the hill. Fill in behind the wall with extra soil, which is available from sand-and-gravel companies.

(B) Keep the basic shape of your yard by positioning the wall near the top of the hillside. Use the soil removed at the base of the hill to fill in near the top of the wall.

HOW TO BUILD A RETAINING WALL USING INTERLOCKING BLOCK

Interlocking wall blocks do not need mortar. Some types are held together with a system of overlapping flanges that automatically set the backward pitch (batter) as the blocks are stacked, as shown in this project. Other types of blocks use fiberglass pins (inset).

Excavate the hillside, if necessary. Allow 12” of space for crushed stone backfill between the back of the wall and the hillside. Use stakes to mark the front edge of the wall. Connect the stakes with mason’s string, and use a line level to check for level.

Dig out the bottom of the excavation below ground level, so it is 6” lower than the height of the block. For example, if you use 6”-thick block, dig down 12”. Measure down from the string in multiple spots to make sure the bottom base is level.

Line the excavation with strips of landscape fabric cut 3 ft. longer than the planned height of the wall. Make sure all seams overlap by at least 6”.

Spread a 6” layer of compactable gravel over the bottom of the excavation as a subbase and pack it thoroughly. A rented tamping machine, or jumping jack, works better than a hand tamper for packing the subbase.

Lay the first course of block, aligning the front edges with the mason’s string. (When using flanged block, place the first course upside down and backward.) Check frequently with a level and adjust, if necessary, by adding or removing subbase material below the blocks.

Lay the second course of block according to manufacturer’s instructions, checking to make sure the blocks are level. (Lay flanged block with the flanges tight against the underlying course.) Add 3 to 4” of gravel behind the block, and pack it with a hand tamper.

Make half-blocks for the corners and ends of a wall, and use them to stagger vertical joints between courses. Score full blocks with a circular saw and masonry blade, then break the blocks along the scored line with a maul and chisel.

Add and tamp crushed stone, as needed, to create a slight downward pitch (about 1/4” of height per foot of pipe) leading to the drain pipe outlet. Place the drain pipe on the crushed stone, 6” behind the wall, with the perforations face down. Make sure the pipe outlet is unobstructed. Lay courses of block until the wall is about 18” above ground level, staggering the vertical joints.

Fill behind the wall with crushed stone, and pack it thoroughly with the hand tamper. Lay the remaining courses of block, except for the cap row, backfilling with crushed stone and packing with the tamper as you go.

Before laying the cap block, fold the end of the landscape fabric over the crushed stone backfill. Add a thin layer of topsoil over the fabric, then pack it thoroughly with a hand tamper. Fold any excess landscape fabric back over the tamped soil.

Apply construction adhesive to the top course of block, then lay the cap block. Use topsoil to fill in behind the wall and to fill in the base at the front of the wall. Install sod or plants, as desired.

HOW TO ADD A CURVE TO AN INTERLOCKING BLOCK RETAINING WALL

Outline the curve by first driving a stake at each end and then driving another stake at the point where lines extended from the first stakes would form a right angle. Tie a mason’s string to the right-angle stake, extended to match the distance to the other two stakes, establishing the radius of the curve. Mark the curve by swinging flour or spray paint at the string end, like a compass.

Excavate for the wall section, following the curved layout line. To install the first course of landscape blocks, turn them upside down and backward and align them with the radius curve. Use a 4-ft. level to ensure the blocks sit level and are properly placed.

Install subsequent courses so the overlapping flange sits flush against the back of the blocks in the course below. As you install each course, the radius will change because of the backwards pitch of the wall, affecting the layout of the courses. Where necessary, trim blocks to size. Install using landscape construction adhesive, taking care to maintain the running bond.

Use half blocks or cut blocks to create finished ends on open ends of the wall.

Timber retaining walls must be anchored with “deadmen” that extend from the wall back into the soil. Deadmen prevent the wall from sagging under the weight of the soil. For best results with timber retaining walls, create a backward angle (batter) by setting each row of timbers 1/2” behind the preceding row. The first row of timbers should be buried.

HOW TO BUILD A RETAINING WALL USING TIMBERS

Spread a 6”-layer of compactable gravel subbase into the prepared trench, then tamp the subbase and begin laying timbers, following the same techniques as with interlocking blocks (steps 4 to 11, pages 313 to 314). Each row of timbers should be set with a 1/2” batter, and end joints should be staggered so they do not align.

Use 12” galvanized spikes or reinforcement bars to anchor the ends of each timber to the underlying timbers. Stagger the ends of the timbers to form strong corner joints. Drive additional spikes along the length of the timbers at 2-ft. intervals. If you have trouble driving the spikes, drill pilot holes.

Install deadmen, spaced 4 ft. apart, midway up the wall. Build the deadmen by joining 3-ft-long lengths of timber with 12” spikes, then insert the ends through holes cut in the landscape fabric. Anchor deadmen to the wall with spikes. Install the remaining rows of timbers, and finish backfilling behind the wall (steps 6 to 11, pages 313 to 314).

Improve drainage by drilling weep holes through the second row of landscape timbers and into the gravel backfill using a spade bit. Space the holes 4 ft. apart, and angle them upward.

A natural stone retaining wall blends into its surroundings immediately and only looks better with age. Building the wall with ashlar, or cut wall stone, is a much easier project than a wall built with round fieldstones or large boulders.

Our single-row retaining wall has a 1/2” batter, created by setting each course of stone 1/2” back from the face of the course below. The base of the wall includes a compacted gravel subbase topped with sand to help level the first course of stones. Roots of plants sewn into the wall crevices (an optional decorative embellishment) will eventually reach into the soil behind the wall.

HOW TO BUILD A STONE RETAINING WALL

Begin excavating the wall site. Dig a trench for the base of wall, making it 6” wider than the wall thickness. If necessary, dig into the slope, creating a backward angle that roughly follows the 1/2” batter the wall will have. If desired, dig returns back into the slope at the end(s) of the wall.

Measure the depth of the trench against a level mason’s string running parallel to the trench. The bottom of the trench should be level and 8” below grade (ground level) for the main section of wall and any returns. If the trench becomes too shallow due to natural contours, step it down the height of one stone.

Complete the wall base by tamping the soil in the trench, and then adding a 3”-layer of compactable gravel and tamping it flat and level. Cover the gravel with landscape fabric, draping the fabric back over the slope. Add a 1”-layer of sand over the fabric in the trench area. Smooth and level the sand with a short 2 × 4 screed board, checking for level with a torpedo level set on the board.

Set the first course with heavy stones, laying long, square-ended stones at the corners first. Tip: Organize your stones by size, and plan to set each course with stones of similar thicknesses. Set up a level mason’s string just in front of the top front edge of the course, letting the stones roughly guide the string placement.

Add or remove sand beneath the stones as needed so they are nearly touching the string. Level the stones front to back with a torpedo level and side to side with a 4-ft. level. If necessary, use a hand maul and stone chisel to chip off irregularities from the edges of stones to improve their fit.

Begin the second course, starting with both ends of the wall face. Reset and level the mason’s string at the height of the second course. Place the second-course stones back 1/2” from the front edges of the first-course stones, overlapping all joints of the first course to create a bond pattern.

Shim beneath stones as needed to level them or add stability, using stone shards and chips. Complete the second course over the main part of the wall.

Complete the returns, as applicable, maintaining the offset joint pattern with the first course. You may need to dig into the slope to create a level base for the return stones. Add a layer of compacted gravel under each return stone before setting it. Complete the remaining courses up to the final (capstone) course.

Backfill behind the base of the wall with drainage rock (not compactable gravel). For a low wall like this, 6 to 10” of gravel is usually sufficient; taller walls may require more gravel and possibly a drainage pipe. Pack the gravel down with a 2 × 4 to help it settle.

Fold the landscape fabric over the gravel, and backfill over the fabric with soil. (The fabric is there to prevent the soil from migrating into the gravel and out through the wall stones.) Trim the fabric just behind the back of the wall, near the top.

Install the final course using long, flat cap stones. Glue the caps in place with block and stone adhesive. After the glue dries, add soil behind the wall to the desired elevation for planting.

A classic archway with a keystone motif gives this arbor retreat its timeless appeal.

An arbor with benches makes an ideal resting spot that will become a destination when hiking to remote areas of your property.

A slatted roof and lattice walls are designed to cut sun and wind, creating a comfortable environment inside the arbor retreat.

A few subtle touches turn this cedar arbor into a true standout. The arches at the tops of the sidewall panels give the design visual lift and a touch of Oriental styling.

HOW TO BUILD THE ARBOR RETREAT

Stake out the project area. Drive a pair of stakes about 2 ft. outside of each corner and string mason’s lines from the stakes to create a rectangle that’s equal to the total project footprint (6 ft. × 8 ft. 8” as seen here). Mark post locations on the strings, as shown in the Post Layout diagram on page 327, and drive stakes at those points to mark postholes.

Set the eight posts in concrete, making sure that the tops of the four inner posts are at least 84” above the ground, and the four outer posts are 72” above ground. The size and depth of postholes should conform to local building codes. At a minimum, the postholes should be three times the diameter of the post (a 12”-dia. hole) and 24” deep. Use stakes and braces to level and plumb the posts.

Trim post tops. Let the concrete set up overnight and then mark level cutting lines on the posts tops. Use a laser level or a 4 ft. level taped to a straight 2 × 4 to transfer the cutting lines. Make sure to make all four faces of each post. Use a circular saw (a cordless trim saw is best) to trim the post tops.

Cut the lower and upper level beams. The lower level consists of four beams running perpendicular to the seats, and two beams running parallel to the seats. The upper level has two main beams and two cross beams. The 4 × 4 beams have two ends rounded over at the bottom corners with a jig saw. Cut the lower seat level beams to length at 36 1/2”. Cut the lower cross beams at 84”. Cut upper level main beams to length at 79”. Cut upper level cross beams at 96”.

Install the lower beams. For each lower level main beam, set the beam on top of an outer post and butt its unshaped end against the corresponding inner post. Hold the beam level, and mark the point where the top face of the beam meets the inner post. Set the beam aside.

Mark a drilling point for a pilot hole on the opposite (inside) face of the inner post. Then, drill a counterbored hole just deep enough to completely recess the washer and head of a 3/8” × 7” lag screw. Reposition each beam so its top face is on the post reference line. Then drill a pilot hole for the lag screw through the inner post and into the end of the beam. Fasten each main beam with a 3/8” lag screw.

Drill angled pilot holes through the sides of the cross beams and into the main beams, about 3/4” in from the sides of the main beams (to avoid hitting the large screws). Drill two holes on each side of the cross beam at each joint. Fasten cross beams to main beams with 3 1/2” deck screws (eight screws for each cross beam) driven toenail style.

Cut the 10 lower roof slats to length (78”). Mark the roof slat layout onto the tops of the lower main beams, following the plan on page 328. Position slats so they overhang the main beams by 3” at both ends. Drill pilot holes, and fasten the slats to the main beams with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Cut seat supports according to the chart on page 329. Save the cutoffs to make seat slats. Also cut a pair of vertical support spacers from a full 2 × 6. Test-fit the pieces onto the arbor posts and make necessary adjustments. Make 18°-plumb cuts at the fronts of the seat supports.

Position the horizontal seat supports by first measuring up from the ground and marking the inner posts at 16 1/2” and the outer posts at 13”. (This marks the top edges of the horizontal supports.) Next, position the seat supports on the marks so their back ends are flush with the outsides of the outer posts. Fasten the supports to the posts with 1/4” × 3” lag screws driven through counterbored pilot holes.

Position the vertical seat back support spacers and mark the locations of the support spacer onto the post. Fasten spacers to the post with 3” deck screws driven through pilot holes. Then, fasten the vertical seat back support to the spacer and horizontal seat support with 3 1/2” deck screws; use three or four screws at each end.

Measure and cut 1 × 8 aprons to lengths so they will fit between the outside faces of the side seat supports. Bevel-cut the top edges of the aprons at 7°. Position the aprons against the seat supports. Fasten aprons to the ends of seat supports with 3 1/2” deck screws.

Install seat slats and center supports by first measuring between inner posts for seat slat length; then cutting eight slats for each side. Position a slat on top of the horizontal seat supports so the front edge overhangs the supports by about 1”. Fasten the slat to supports with pairs of 3” deck screws. Continue installing slats, leaving a 3/16” gap between each.

Assemble the two center seat supports so they match the outer supports, using 2 1/2” deck screws. Install the center supports at the midpoints of the slats by screwing through the slats and into the supports, using 3” deck screws.

Build arched lattice screens by first marking the layout of horizontal lattice pieces onto the posts. Mark along one post and use a level to transfer the marks to the other post. Then cut 20 2 × 2 lattice slats to 31”. Position them so they overhang the posts by 1 1/2” at both ends and fasten slats to posts with 2 1/2” deck screws driven through pilot holes.

Make the arches using a cardboard template to trace the shape onto a 2 × 8. Cut out the arch with a jigsaw or bandsaw and test-fit the arch between the post pairs. Make necessary adjustments and cut the remaining arches. Sand the cut edges smooth.

Fasten the arches to the posts using 2 1/2” deck screws. First, position arches so they are flush with the outside faces of the posts and, at each end, drill an angled pilot hole upward through the bottom of the arch and into the post.

Cut eight vertical slats to a rough length of 54” (first, mark slats 7” from each post to represent the outside edges of the vertical lattice slats). Mark the top ends of the slats to match the arches by holding each slat on its reference marks. Cut the curved ends and test-fit the slats. Hold each slat in place against the arch (mark bottom for length), then cut them to length.

Install vertical slats with 3” deck screws driven down through tops of the arches and 2 1/2” deck screws driven through the lowest horizontal slats. Make sure all screwheads are countersunk.

Build the back lattice screens by cutting 2 × 2 slats to length at 75”, for a 1 1/2” overhang at each end. Position the slats on layout marks, drill pilot holes, and fasten the slats to the posts with 2 1/2” deck screws.

Finish the structure. Sand any rough areas with a random-orbit sander. Wipe down the project, and then apply a coat of exterior wood sealant/protectant.

Building against a solid wall and not in front of a patio door makes the space inside this contemporary shelter much more usable. The corrugated roof panels (see Resources, page 553) made of clear polycarbonate allow light to enter while keeping the elements out.

Slats of white oak sandwich clear polycarbonate panels to create walls that block the wind without blocking light and views.